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170 Cards in this Set
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During lab, you inoculate cultures that become incubated in the Biological Sciences Tower. Within this tower, you bacteria grow on a ______/______ system, which basically means that your TA grows the class's bacteria under artificial conditions like limited nutrients, controlled temperatures, controlled pH levels, and controlled Oxygen levels.
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Closed/Batch System
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In understanding generation time for bacteria, biologists plot a bacteria's _____ ______ to grasp what stages of growth bacteria go through for optimal growth.
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Growth Chart
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On a graph depicting a bacteria's growth curve, the x-axis goes up in normal increments, however, the y-axis is the ______ of the number of bacteria. To demonstrate your understanding of the y-axis's _____ scale, answer the following question, "If a growth curve is plotted on the y-axis at the points 1, 3, and 5, how many bacteria are present?"
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Log, Log, 10, 1,000, 10^3
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Do bacteria immediately grow on a new medium?
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No
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What must bacteria switch out in order to adjust to a new medium?
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Bacteria change out the enzymes that they use to suit a new medium.
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What part on a growth curve represents the period of time it takes for bacteria to adjust to a new medium, and what determines the length of time it takes for bacteria to adjust to new environmental conditions?
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On a bacterial growth curve, the lag phase represents how long it takes for bacteria to adjust to a new medium. This length of time depends on how different the new medium is from the old medium for each bacteria.
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Using a bacterial growth curve, when are bacteria most vulnerable to antibodies? Please explain why.
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Bacteria are most susceptible to antibodies during the Log phase because at this time, bacteria are replicating DNA and synthesizing lots of material.
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Why does the stationary phase of a bacterial growth curve show no net change in bacterial growth?
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During the stationary phase, bacteria do not grow because they are multiplying at the same rate that they are dying.
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On a bacterial growth curve, when should doctors worry the most about a pathogen?
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Doctors should worry the most about pathogens during the death phase of a bacterial growth curve because at this point, bacteria are most resistant to antibodies.
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Why do bacteria enter the death phase of their growth curve?
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Bacteria enter the death phase of their growth curve when nutrients are depleted and toxins have accumulated.
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What are the major required elements for bacterial growth?
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C, H, O, N, P, and S
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What are the trace elements needed for bacterial growth?
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Co, Zn, Cu, and Mo
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Why do bacteria need low amounts of metals in order to survive?
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Bacteria use metals to form inorganic co-enzymes like Fe++, Mg++, and Mt++.
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Why do fastidious organisms need extra growth factors like ________ and _______? (Two part answer, the blank words and the actual question)
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Vitamins, amino acids, and... Bacteria need extra growth factors like vitamins and amino acids because they do not have the necessary pathways to synthesize these organic compounds.
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Bacteria use ______ nutrients in large amounts, but they only use a small number of _______ nutrients.
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Macro, Micro
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What do all bacteria require to grow?
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Major Required Elements and Trace Required Elements
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Do all bacteria die when they enter the death phase of their growth curve?
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No, not all bacteria die when they enter the death phase of their growth curve because some are resistant and some just keep on living.
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What are the three energy sources that bacteria can use?
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Sunlight, and organic and inorganic chemical compounds
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What does the prefix, photo-, mean in the word phototrophs?
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The prefix, photo-, states that phototrophs use sunlight as their source of energy.
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Where and why do viruses appear dead?
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Viruses apepar dead when they are outside a host cell because they show no signs of metabolism, growth, and they do not do anything. This lack of activity explains why they are inert when outside of host cells.
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When do viruses' nucleic acids become active?
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Viruses' nucleic acids become active once they virus penetrates a host cell.
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Which structure encapsulates all virions and which structure encapsulates only some virions?
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All single virus particles, virions, are encapsulated by an envelope of nucleocapsid. Nevertheless, some viruses have a lipid envelope and spikes in addition to their capsule of nucleocapsid.
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Non-enveloped or Naked viruses have a capsule made of ______.
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Nucleocapsid
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In addition to Nucleocapsid, enveloped viruses have a ______ envelope and some even have _______.
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lipid, spikes
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All viruses have ______, but not all viruses have a ______ envelope.
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Nucleocapsid, lipid
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By defining viruses as Obligate Intracellular Parasites, what does the term "Parasites" refer to?
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The term parasites in a virus's definition means that viruses use only the resources of the host cell for bio-replication.
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In the definition of viruses, Obligate Intracellular Parasites, what do the terms "Obligate Intracellular" say about viruses?
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The terms "Obligate Intracellular" literary mean "strictly inside the cell." As part of a virus's definition, "Obligate Intracellular" reveals that viruses need to penetrate a host cell in order for them to activate their nucleic acid.
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If a virus is inside your body, but it has yet to penetrate a host cell, is that virus active?
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No, a virus must first penetrate a cell to be considered active.
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What types of nucleic acid (DNA, RNA, or both) do viruses have?
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Viruses can have either DNA or RNA, but they never have both.
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What is a unique characteristic of a virus's RNA arrangement?
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A virus can have a double stranded RNA arrangement.
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What are the three arrangements of a virus's nucleic acid?
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Circular/Linear/Fragmented
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For a virus, its DNA or RNA can be in which two types of stranded arrangement?
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Double Stranded or Single Stranged
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_______ is a virus's protein coat that is made of ________, and this protein coat gives the virus its shape and arrangement. For example, a helical virus.
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Capsid, Capsomeres
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Phages, known as ______, are complex viruses that look like space ships and only infect prokaryotic cells.
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Bacteriophages
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Most importantly about viruses, the professor went over this quite a few times, how many hosts can a virus infect, 1, 2, 3, or everything it touches?
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Most viruses can only infect on host, for instance, a virus that infects a humans upper respiratory system will not infect their G.I. track, because each virus only infects one host.
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Why do most virses only infect one host?
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Viruses only infect one host because of how specific their attachments are to the host cell that the virus wants to infect. For example, a virus that infects plant cells will not infect human cells.
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What two interactions do viruses have with host cells?
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Productive or Latent Infections
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How do viruses spread if they productively infect host cells?
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A productive infection of a host cell results in budding or lysis, death, of that host cell. When a cell undergoes budding or lysis, it releases viruses from the inside of the host cell to the outside.
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What type of phages productively infect cells?
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Virulent phages like the T4 virus
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In a latent infection, does a temperate phage replicate itself?
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In a latent infection, a virus will penetrate a cell, but it will not replicate itself inside that cell. Instead, the prophage becomes replicated during the host cell's binary fusion.
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What type of viruses perform latent infections?
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Temperate phages like Lambda perform latent infections.
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How do hand sanitizers prevent flu virueses from infecting you?
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The alcohol in hand sanitizers destroys the flu virus's envelope. Without an envelope, the virus cannot infect humans because, most importantly, the critical part of infections is the attachment of the virus to a host cell. If a virus cannot attach to a host cell, it cannot infect the cell.
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Virulent phages go through the ______ cycle while it under goes a _______ infection of the host cell.
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lytic, productive
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The ______ phage, Lambda, performs a ______ infection of a host cell. While infecting the cell, Lambda and all other ______ phages follow the ______ cycle.
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temperate, latent, temperate, lysogenic
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In the lytic cycle, cell _______ causes the release of _____ phages. In order to destroy the cell, _____ phages inject the enzyme, _______, into the cell wall. The enzyme, _______, breaks down the cell wall and effectively allows mature phages to be released from the host cell.
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lysis, virulent, virulent, lysoenzyme, lysoenzyme
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In the ______ stage of the lytic cycle, the phage's nucleic acid tells the host cell to make viral parts. Then, when the virus enters the _____ stage, the viral parts are made into virions.
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Biosynthesis, Maturation
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Where must a virus attach itself onto a bacteria cell?
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Either the the bacteria cell's flagella, cell wall, or pili
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Why does the Eclipse period of a viral one-step growth curve show a decreased amount of virus particles present in an infected organism than in the initial count of of virus particles?
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The Eclipsed period shows a lower amount of virus particles in an infected organism because during this period, the virus particles have entered the cells of the host organism. Since the virions are inside the host cells, at this time, biologists cannot count the number of virions present in the host organism. Thus, the virion count decreases.
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On a one-step growth curve, why does the number of virions peak after being released from host cells?
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The number of virions first peaks and then decreases after being released from host cells because the virions die from the carrier's immune system or they enter another host cell again.
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A cell is called a ______, once a ____ phage enters it.
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Lysogen, Temperate
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In the Lysogenic Cycle, how does a virus replicate itself?
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Trick question! It doesn't replicate itself. Initially, a temperate phage penetrates the cell wall of a host cell. Then, it injects its nucleic acid into the host cell. Phage DNA integrates within the bacterial chromosome by recombination, becoming a prophage. Finally, a host cell undergoes binary fusion and in the process, it copies the phage's DNA because it is apart of the host's chromosomes.
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What is responsible for the latency of a virus?
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The prohage
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What determines if Lambda initially under goes the lytic of lysogenic cycle?
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Lambda will either under go the lytic or lysogenic cycle based on the host cell's conditions like its proteins or genetics.
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When a phage's DNA combines with the host's DNA the phage's DNA is called _______.
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Prophage
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What determines if a phage will switch from the lysogenic cycle to the lytic cycle?
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Factors such as the strength of the infected organism's immune system and UV light that can damage the bacteria's DNA activates the prophage, making the virus go through the lytic cycle.
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A cell infected by a temperate virus going through a lysogenic cycle is sometimes advantageous for the cell. For example, when a cell is a lysogen, the temperate phage does not directly cause ______ of the host cell. Additionally, when a lysogen has a prophage integrated into its DNA, that lysogen has partial _______ from similar phages.
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lysis, immunity
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If a host cell is infected by a virus and becomes a lysogen, it can acquire new properties. For instance, the bacteria _______ and ________ produce toxins only after the integration of a specific prophage.
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Clostridium and Corynebacterium (underline both names because they are names of a bacterial genus)
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What type of viruses are animal viruses like?
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Human viruses. Therefore, one can apply the properties of animal viruses to human viruses.
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In contrast to Bacteriophages, animal viruses lack _______, but have ________, and ________. Also, animal viruses attach to a host cell's _______ ________, where it completely enters the host cell instead of attaching itself onto the host cell's flagella, pili, or cell wall to only then inject its nucleic acid.
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tall fibers, envelopes, spikes, cellular membrane
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When an animal virus is inside a host cell, it performs _______ where it removes its capsid in order to release its nucleic acid in the host cell.
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uncoating
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Antiviral drugs attack human viruses during their ______ phase of infection because if the drugs can stop them from _____, the drugs stop human viruses from releasing their nucleic acid into the host cell. As a result, the virus' DNA cannot take over the cell and continue the lytic or lysogenic cyle.
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uncoating, uncoating
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During ______, one viriion gets released from the host cell at a time.
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Budding
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During _______, one virion gets released from the host cell at a time by that virion pushing out against the _______ ________ of the host cell, which makes a viral envelope made out of the host cell's ________ _______. Then, this virion that has made a ____, pinches off from the host cell and is released.
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budding, cellular membrane, cellular membrane, bud
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In budding, human viruses make their _______ from the host cell's cellular membrane.
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envelopes
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How does the immune system recognize the difference between a virus and a normal cell, if the virus has an envelope that is made from the cellular membrane of the host cell?
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The immune system distinguishes between a virus within an envelope made out of the host cell's own cellular membrane and a normal cell by recognizing viral proteins present in the virus's envelope.
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Why is it that viruses cannot grow on Nutrient Agar?
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A viruses must be intracellular before it grows.
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How do biologists count the number of viruses in a sample?
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Biologists fist make a lawn culture of bacteria on a medium and then they use the spread plate technique to inoculate it with a virus. After incubation, they count the number of plaque forming units (it is assumed that one plaque forming unit equals one virion) and dvide that number by the volume plated multiplied by the total dilution (pfu/volume platedXtotal dilution=pfu/ml).
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(T/F) Biologists classify viruses using the same procedure they use to classify bacteria.
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F
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The damaging effects of viruses cause the host's symptoms and are otherwise known as _________.
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Cytopathic effects
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What is the name of the damaging effects that viruses cause and biologists study in order to identify the present viruses in humans?
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Cytopathic effects
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What type of test do doctors perform in order to determine if a patient presently has antibodies for a certain virus?
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Serological Tests
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Which doctor would have better results and a more accurate reading of present viruses inside a patient, the doctor that use Serologoical tests or one that tests for the cytoptahic effects of a virus?
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The doctor that used the Serological test
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Which viruses causes cancer?
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Oncoviruses
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Do all viruses cause cancer?
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No, only oncoviruses cause cancer.
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What do oncoviruses contain that causes cancer?
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Oncogenes, which are mutated genes.
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How does an oncovirus cause a human cell to turn into a canerous cell?
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When an oncovirus penetrates a human cell, its oncogenes integrate into the host cell's DNA. These oncogenes are mutated genes, so when the oncogenes become a prophage, it turns normal human genes into mutated genes. Thus, cancer forms.
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What do human cells need to be cancerous?
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Oncogenes
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What type of infection does an oncovirus perform?
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Latent Infection
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(T/F) Doctors use protective gloves and a protective mask when they see patients who are infected with an oncovirus like HPV.
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False, Oncoviruses are latent viruses and are not contagious.
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Do human viruses have the enzyme, lysoenzyme?
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No
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After an acute infection of Chicken Pox, the virus remains dormant in the body. In other words, the virus goes through a ______ infection, only to be activated later by a _______ immune system.
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latent, weakened
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(T/F) Chicken Pox is a persistent infection
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F
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Why does Chicken Pox cause shingles when it comes out of its latent infection?
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Chicken Pox causes shingles once it becomes active after a latent infection because during the latent infection, Chicken Pox remains in the spinal nerves.
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Persistent infections such as Cervical Cancer caused by HPV steadily _______ and eventually, explode in the ________ of virions present.
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Multiply, number
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Define Prions.
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Infections protein particles
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What is a Prion's structure?
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It is a particle made up of proteins.
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How do humans contract Prions?
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Ingestion (like eating beef infected by mad cow disease), transplant surgery (think of a pig's heart), or surgical instruments
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(T/F) Prions have abnormal amino acids that cause infection.
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F
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What makes Prions infections?
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The prions folding is abnormal and causes infection.
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How do Prions damage normal proteins?
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A Prion's folding changes a normal protein's folding into an abnormal protein folding, which causes the host's infection.
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What are viroids?
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Infections RNA
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Do viroids infect humans or animals?
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Trick question. Viroids only infect plants.
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What is "naked" DNA?
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DNA that is not enclosed in a cell.
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What makes bacteria competent?
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Bacterium with an altered cell wall and cell membrane are competent, which allows them to take in naked DNA.
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(T/F) The donor cell dies after releasing its DNA.
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T
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(T/F) The recipiant cell takes in both strands of the donor cell's DNA.
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F, it only takes in a single strand of donor cells DNA.
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How many genes can a recipient cell acquire?
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A limited amount, only about 20 genes.
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(T/F) Human cells that are transformed are the same as bacterial cells that are transformed.
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F, Human cells that are transformed are now cancerous cells. Bacterial cells that are transformed have genetically transformed because they have acquired new genetic DNA.
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What are the stages of a bacterial cell's genetic transformation?
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A donor cell dies, which releases huge chunks of its DNA into the environment. The, only competent cells take in a small fragment of the naked DNA, which turns the competent cells into the recipient cells. Once a recipient cell takes in donor DNA, it acquires new properties.
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(T/F) Only recipient cells that are similar to the donor cell can take in the donor cell's naked DNA.
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True
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(T/F) A recipient cell takes in only one strand of the donor cell's naked DNA, which leaves one strand of the naked DNA left extracellular.
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True
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Can genetic transformation occur between two living cells (specifically, not transduction or conjugation but transformation)?
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No
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What type of genetic transformations occur when two bacteriums come in direct contact with one another?
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Conjugation
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What types of genetic transformation builds a bacteria's resistance to antibodies?
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Transformation, Transduction, Conjugation
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What must happen to the donor cell before the transformation of its genetic material goes to a recipient cell (specifically, genetic transformation)?
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Lysis
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In genetic transformation, what is the only type of cell that can be a recipient cell?
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Competent
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In genetic transformation, how do recipient cells acquire new properties?
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After taking in naked DNA from donor cells, the recipient cell integrates the new DNA into their chromosomes.
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What two characteristics must a recipient cell have in order to take in naked DNA?
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It must be competent and very similar to the donor cell.
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In transduction, what mediates the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another?
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Bacteriophages
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Can transduction occur without bacteriophages?
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No
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Which cycle do bacteriophages go through when they perform generalized transduction?
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lytic cycle
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When bacteriophages pick up host DNA instead of its phage DNA, during the maturation phase of the lytic cycle, what phage will it become?
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A defective or a transducing phage
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What type of bacteriophage can perform transduction?
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Lytic and Lysogenic phages
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Which phages perform specialized transduction?
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Temperate or Lysogenic phages
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Do defective phages continue the lytic cycle?
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No, once virulent phages release donor DNA into a recipient cell, it no longer infects the host bacterium. Instead, donors' DNA integrates into the host's DNA, giving the host new properties.
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In generalized transduction, which part of the donor's DNA becomes assembled?
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Any part of the donor's DNA has a chance to be assembled
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Why is it possible that virulent phages can pick up donor DNA instead of phage DNA?
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In the lytic cycle, host DNA fragments. Fragmented host DNA can be picked up by lytic phages.
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What are the differences between generalized and specialized transduction?
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Generalized transduction is carried out by lytic phages, while specialized transduction is carried out by lysogenic phages. Additionally, in generalized transduction, all parts of the host's fragmented DNA have an equal change to be accidentally assembled by virulent phages, but in specialized transduction, only the host's DNA located on the prophage's flanks can be transduced by temperate phages. Finally, in generalized transduction, the transducing phages are defective, however, in sepecialized transduction, the transducing phages are not defective.
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Which genetic transformation best transfers antibiotic resistance?
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Conjugation
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Does conjugation destroy the donor or the recipient cell?
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No, both the donor cell and the recipient cell live.
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What must a donor cell have to perform conjugation?
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Plasmid(s) and pili structures
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What mediates the transfer of DNA from the donor to the recipient cell in conjugation?
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The donor cell's plasmid(s)
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In conjugation, what type of DNA transfer occurs between both the donor and the recipient cell?
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Direct DNA transfer haappens between the donor cell and the recipient cell.
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What type of cells commonly perform conjugation?
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Gram negative cells
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How do Gram negative cells come in direct contact for conjugation?
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A donor's pili structure attaches to a recipient cell
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How do Gram positive cells come in direct contact for conjugation?
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Since most Gram positive cells lack pili structures, they come in direct contact with one another by secreting a sticky substance that temporarily connects their cell walls.
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How many plasmid strains transfer from the donor cell to the recipient cell in conjugation?
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Only one plasmid strain gets transferred.
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In conjugation, how does the recipient cell acquire the two plasmid strains?
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It acquires one plasmid strain from the donor cell and synthesizes the other plasmid strain.
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What are the two types of conjugation?
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Type 1: The donor cell only transfers a single strand of its plasmid(s) to the recipient cell. Type 2: The donor cell transfers a single strain of both its plasmid and chromosome.
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What is the difference between narrow and broad range plasmids?
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Narrow range plasmids exist inside a limited selection of bacteria, but broad range plasmids are found in a diverse array of bacteria.
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How do bacteria pass on their plasmids?
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Bacteria pass on their plasmids by conjugation.
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Which plasmid makes bacteria resistant to antibiotics?
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R plasmid (R=resistant)
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Give an example of a high and low copy plasmid.
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High Copy=R plasmid, Low Copy=F plasmid
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Can multiple types of plasmids exist inside a single bacterium?
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Yes
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What happens to plasmids when cells do not need them for essential functions?
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If bacteria do not need plasmids for survival, they spontaneously delete the plasmids.
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What type of functions do plasmids carry out?
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Non essential functions
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What is an Hfr cell?
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A high frequency recombinant cell
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What is the key difference between Hfr cells and F+ cells?
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In Hfr cells, the plasmid is incorporated into the donor cells chromosomes, but in F+ cells, the plasmid is separate from the donor cells' chromosomes.
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What term defines segments of DNA that can move from one region of DNA to another region?
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Transposons
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What are jumping genes?
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Transposons
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What allows transposons to move from various DNA segments?
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Transposons have enzymes to cut various DNA segments, allowing the transposon to insert itself in that sequence of DNA, and reseal that DNA chain.
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Why is it that sometimes transposons are not beneficial to bacteria?
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Sometimes transposons insert themselves in critical segments of bacterial DNA, which can cause the disruption of important processes and kill the cell.
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Can transposons insert themselves in plasmids as well as the bacteria's chromosomes?
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Yes
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What are the useful functions of transposons?
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Some transposons carry genes for antibiotic resistance
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List four base substitutions.
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Point, missense, nonsense, and silent mutation
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What causes frame shift mutations?
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The addition or deletion of nucleotides
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Lets say that a DNA chain of 28 nucleotides exist and a deletion occurs. How many nucleotides will exist now.
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Less than 28
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In general, which mutation is more dangerous to bacterial survival, base substitutions or the addition or deletion of nucleotides?
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Addition/Deletion
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Which mutation changes the net length of a DNA chain?
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Addition or Deletion of nucleotides
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How many nucleotides can base substitutions affect?
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From a single nucleotide to multiple nucleotides
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What type of mutation occurs when base substitution only changes one base pair?
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Point mutation
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What mutation causes the wrong amino acid to be incorporated into the protein?
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Missense mutation
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A missense mutation can be which two types of base substitutions?
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Either point or base substitutions
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Which mutation changes an amino acid codon to a stop codon?
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Nonsense mutation
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How does a nonsense mutation affect the protein?
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The protein will not be full length, it will not fold properly, and it will not function
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Does the amino acid change after a silent mutation affects the codon?
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No
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What do chemotrophs use as their energy source?
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Chemicals
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What do phototrophs use for their energy source?
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Light
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What do chemoheterotrophs/chemoorganotrophs use for their energy and carbon source?
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Chemicals for energy, Organic compounds for carbon
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What do chemoautotrpohs/chemolithotrophs use for their energy and carbon sources?
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Chemicals for energy, and CO2 for carbon
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What do Photoheterotrophs use for their energy and carbon sources?
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Light for energy and Organic Compounds for carbon
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What do Photoautotrophs use for their energy and carbon source?
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Light for energy and CO2 for carbon
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How do biologists grow animal viruses in laboratory?
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In living animals, embryonated eggs, primary cell lines or continuouse cell lines
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What is the difference between primary cell lines and continuous cell lines?
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Primary cell lines only can be used for short periods of time because they die quickly outside the host organism. Conversely, continuous cells lines are modified so that they can live forever.
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How does a cell become an Hfr cell?
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By incorporating the cell's plasmid into its DNA chromosomes, a F+ cell becomes a Hfr cell.
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When the Hfr cell performs conjugation with an F- cell, what does the Hfr cell transfer to the F- cell?
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During conjugation, the Hfr cell transfers part of the chromosome that has the incorporated plasmid to the recipient cell.
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What usually happens to the Hfr cell's chromosome when it transfers the chromosome to a recipient cell?
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Usually, when a Hfr cell transfers the chromosome with a plasmid incorporated in it, the chromosome breaks or fragments.
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What is the result of the chromosome fragmenting when an Hfr cell transfers the chromosome with the attached plasmid to the recipient cell?
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During conjugation, if the Hfr cell's chromosome with its incorporated plasmid fragments, the recipient cell only obtains a portion of the chromosome and the plasmid.
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After an F- cell completes conjugation with a Hfr cell, what is the recipient cell called?
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Recombinant F- cell
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Other than conjugation, how does a Hfr cell pass on its genetic information?
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Vertical genetic transformation
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