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170 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Leeuwenhoek’s contribution |
Developed the compound microscope |
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Difference between fungi, protozoa, algae and bacteria |
Fungi: cell walls, molds & yeasts, eukaryotic Protozoa: eukaryotic, locomotion via pseudopodia, cilia, flagella; live freely in water, some in animal hosts Algae: unicellular or multi, photosyntheticQ Bacteria: prokaryotic, lack nuclei, asexual reproduction, bacteria & archaea |
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Prokaryotic versus eukaroyotic |
Prokaryotes: no nucleus, no mitochondria Eukaryotes: nucleus, mitochondria, membrane-bound organelles |
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What led to the ability to see viruses? |
Invention of the electron microscope |
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What is spontaneous generation and Needham's contribution |
The belief that life could arise from non-life, Needham's experiments reinforced this idea. |
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What was Spallanzani’s contribution? |
Disproved spontaneous generation theory |
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How did Pasteur refute spontaneous generation? |
Proved there are microbes floating around in the air and that is the source Swan necked flasks experiment. |
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What are examples of positive and negative controls? |
negative control group is a group in which no response is expected positive control is a group in which a known response is expected |
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What parts of an organism could produce wine? |
Yeast: it ferments the sugars and it’s byproduct is alcohol |
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What is Koch’s contribution to disease? How would you use this to prove or disprove a disease? |
Studied causative agents of disease and figured out how anthrax was spread |
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What are Koch’s postulates? |
The microorganism must be found in infected, but should not be found in healthy. The microorganism must be isolated and grown in pure culture. The cultured microorganism should cause disease when introduced into a healthy organism. The microorganism must be reisolated from the inoculated, diseased experimental host and identified as being identical to the original. |
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What is the purpose of Gram staining? |
A way to distinguish between different bacteria |
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How do you Gram stain? |
Crystal violet and let stand for 1 minute. Rinse with distilled water. Gram’s iodine and let stand for 1 minute. Rinse with distilled water. Decolorize until the slide runs almost clear. Rinse with distilled water. Safranin to counter-stain and let stand for 45 seconds. Rinse with distilled water. |
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Why is Gram staining necessary in micro? |
It determines whether bacteria are present and also whether the bacteria are gram negative or gram positive. |
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What is Florence Nightingale’s contribution to micro? |
Figured out that cleaning the body, having clean beds and clothes etc. significantly dropped the death rate |
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What is the microbiome? |
The collection of microbes or microorganisms that inhabit an environmen |
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What influence did disease have on the history of mankind? |
Medical advancements in discovery of vaccinations, bacteria and viruses, advancements in hygiene, and medical technology |
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What happened during the 1918 influenza outbreak? |
Known as "Spanish Flu" almost 700,000 Americans died of the influenza pandemic, ten times as many from the world war. |
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What is matter? |
Anything that takes up space and has mass |
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What is an atom? |
The smallest chemical units of matter |
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What is the structure of an atom? |
Electrons, nucleus, neutrons, and protons |
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What charges and mass do protons, neutrons and electrons have? |
Protons: positive mass: 1.67 x 10^-27 Electrons: negative mass: 9.1 x10^/31 Neutrons: no charge mass: 1.67 x 10^-27 |
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How are atomic mass units calculated? |
Add up the mass of the protons and neutrons |
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What are isotopes? |
Atoms of a given element that differ in the number of neutrons in their nuclei, in particular the radioactive form of an element |
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What are valence electrons? |
Electrons in outermost shell that interact with other atoms |
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What makes carbon such a good source for combining with different atoms? |
Because of its 4 valence electrons |
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What are the different chemical bonds, how are they made and which are the strongest? |
Ionic bonds form when two atoms have a large difference in electronegativity. Metal and non-metal. Moderate strength. Covalent bonds form when two atoms have a nearly insignificant difference in electronegativity. Strongest Polar covalent bonds fall between ionic and covalent bonds Hydrogen bonds only form between hydrogen and oxygen (O), nitrogen (N) or fluorine (F). Weakest. |
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What properties of water make it particularly good for life? |
Cohesive due to hydrogen bonds and this has surface tension Ice is less dense than water Excellent solvent Remains liquid across a wide temp range Absorb significant amounts of energy without changing temp |
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Where do you find hydrogen bonds? How are these formed and broken? |
In water A hydrogen bond is the electrostatic attraction between two polar groups that occurs when a hydrogen (H) atom covalently bound to a highly electronegative atom such as nitrogen (N) or oxygen (O) experiences the electrostatic field of another highly electronegative atom nearby. |
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What is the difference between a polar and non-polar covalent bond? |
Non-polar covalent: shared electrons spend equal amount of time around each nucleus (atoms has similar electronegativities) *carbon forms 4 nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent: unequal sharing due to significantly different electronegativitie |
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What is meant be electronegative? How do you determine this? |
Electronegativity is defined as the ability of an atom in a particular molecule to attract electrons to itself. (the greater the value, the greater the attractiveness for electrons) |
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Give examples of synthesis and decomposition reactions? |
Synthesis reactions-put things together-anabolism, dehydration synthesis- formation of water Decomposition- Take things apart-catabolism, exothermic-electrolysis of water to make hydrogen and oxygen gas |
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What are exchange reactions? |
Exchange reactions are those in which cations and anions that were partners in the reactants are interchanged in the products. |
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What are acids and bases? |
Acids are ionic compounds ( a compound with a positive or negative charge) that break apart in water to form a hydrogen ion (H+)
Bases are ionic compounds that break apart to form a negatively charged hydroxide ion (OH-) in water. |
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What is a salt? |
Ionic compound that results from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. |
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Parts of fats, sterols, waxes and phospholipids |
Fats: carboxylic acid group with C-H chain attached Sterols: Sterols, also known as steroid alcohols, are a subgroup of the steroids and an important class of organic molecules. Cholesterol Waxes: fatty acid chain covalently linked to long-chain alcohol by ester bond Phospholipids: phosphate + glycerol in head with fatty acid tails |
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What makes a phospholipid polar and nonpolar? |
Phosphate in head makes it polar Two nonpolar fatty acid chains |
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How do phospholipids work in soaps? |
Hydrophobic end attaches to oil and soap forms a micelle around it due its hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails |
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What are organic molecules? |
Organic molecules are the molecules of life and are built around chains of carbon atoms that are often quite long. There are four main groups of organic molecules that combine to build cells and their parts: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. |
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Give examples of sugars / carbohydrates |
Sugars: glucose and fructose Carbohydrates: polysaccharides, disaccharides, monosacchrides |
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Give example of proteins |
enzymes, antibodies, and receptors |
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Give examples of DNA / nucleic acids |
Adenine, cytosine, thymine, guanine, uracil |
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What is the principle of microscopy |
Wavelength of radiation, magnification, resolution, contrast |
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What’s the difference between bright-field, dark-field, phase and fluorescent microscopy |
Bright-field: Simple and Compound. Simple: single magnifying lens. Dark-field: best for observing pale objects; appears light against dark background; increases contrast and observation of more details Fluorescent: direct UV light at specimen, specimen radiates energy back as a longer, visible wavelength Phase: able to examine living organisms |
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What is the purpose of stains |
to better visualize cells and cell components under a microscope |
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What is electron microscopy? Why is it important? |
A type of microscope that uses a beam of electrons to create an image of the specimen. It is capable of much higher magnifications and has a greater resolving power than a light microscope, allowing it to see much smaller objects in finer detail. |
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What is a dichotomous key |
A tool that allows the user to determine the identity of items in the natural world, such as trees, wildflowers, mammals, reptiles, rocks, and fish. Keys consist of a series of choices that lead the user to the correct name of a given item. |
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What is the difference between streptococcus and a Streptococcus |
. |
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What is DNA |
Deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information. |
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Define genome, genetics and gene |
Genome is an organism's complete set of DNA, including all of its genes. Gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in living organisms |
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What makes bacterial DNA different from eukaryotic DNA in terms of structure and organization |
Eukaryotes package DNA in chromosomes around histones, have many chromosomes Prokaryotes chromosome is circular, only have one main chromosome |
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What is a plasmid |
A small DNA molecule within a cell that is physically separated from a chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently. |
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How is DNA organized in eukaryotes |
DNA-protein complex that is organized in a compact manner which permits the large amount of DNA to be stored in the nucleus of the cell, wrapped around histones. |
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How is DNA replicated |
The double helix is unwound and each strand acts as a template for the next strand |
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What are Okazaki fragments? |
Short, newly synthesized DNAfragments that are formed on the lagging template strand during DNA replication |
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What is meant by semiconservative replication |
The generally accepted method of DNA replication, in which the two strands of the DNA helix separate and free nucleotides pair with the exposed bases on the single chains to form two new DNA molecules, each containing one original and one newly synthesized strand of DNA. |
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What’s the relationship between genotype and phenotype |
Genotype of an organism is defined as the sum of all its genes. Phenotype of an organism is the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, determined by both genetic make-up and environmental influences. |
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What’s the purpose of DNA replication |
To produce two identical copies of a DNA molecule. This is essential for cell division during growth or repair of damaged tissues |
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What is transcription, what is its purpose? |
DNA transcription is a process that involves transcribing genetic information from DNA to RNA To make RNA copies of individual genes that the cell can use |
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What is the role of RNA primers, mRNA, rRNA, tRNA in the cell’s function |
mRNA carries the genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-basecode “words,” each of which specifies a particular amino acid. tRNA is the key to deciphering the code words in mRNA. Each type of amino acid has its own type of tRNA, which binds it and carries it to the growing end of a polypeptide chain rRNA associates with a set of proteins to form ribosomes |
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What are the steps for transcription |
Initiation. The DNA molecule unwinds and separates Elongation. RNA polymerase moves along the template strand, synthesising an mRNA molecule. Termination. The addition of additional adenine nucleotides at the 3' of the RNA transcript Processing. After transcription the RNA molecule is processed in a number of ways: introns are removed and the exons are spliced together. The base thymine is replaced with the base uracil. |
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What is translation |
the process by which a protein is synthesized from the information contained in a molecule of messenger RNA |
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What is an operon |
a unit made up of linked genes that is thought to regulate other genes responsible for protein synthesis. |
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What are stop codons? What amino acids do these code for? |
Stop codons are sequences of DNA and RNA that are needed to stop translation or the making of proteins by stringing amino acids together. UAG, UAA, UGA |
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How are genes regulated in prokaryotes and eukaryotes |
Regulation occurs at the transcriptional level. Eukaryotic gene expression is regulated during transcription and RNA processing Prokaryotes regulate gene expression by controlling the amount of transcription. |
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What is feedback inhibition, repressible operons and inducible operons |
feedback inhibition is a cellular control mechanism in which an enzyme that catalyzes the production of a particular substance in the cell is inhibited when that substance has accumulated to a certain level |
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What are point mutations, insertions and deletions? Which are worse and why? |
Point mutation, or single base modification Insertion is the addition of one or more nucleotide base pairs into a DNA sequence deletion is a mutation in which a part of a chromosome or a sequence of DNA is lost |
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What is the effect on DNA on different forms of mutagens? |
a physical or chemical agent that changes the genetic material |
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examples of the types of mutations caused by UV versus xray |
X-rays can cause DNA and protein damage UV causes chemical changes that alter the shape of your DNA |
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How are genes transferred between organisms |
Because of the universality of the genetic code, the polymerases of one organism can accurately transcribe a gene from another organism |
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What is PCR, how does it work |
Polymerase Chain Reaction, the sample is first heated so the DNA denatures, or separates into two pieces of single-stranded DNA. Next, an enzyme called "Taq polymerase" synthesizes - builds - two new strands of DNA, using the original strands as templates |
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Explain catabolism and anabolism |
Catabolic reactions usually release energy that is used to drive chemical reactions. Anabolism refers to chemical reactions in which simpler substances are combined to form more complex molecules. Anabolic reactions usually require energy. |
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What is oxidation and reduction |
Oxidation occurs when an atom LOSES electrons. Reduction occurs when an atom GAINS electrons. |
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What are enzymes |
a substance produced by a living organism that acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction. |
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enzymes involved in metabolism |
pyruvate dehydrogenase is a complex of three different enzymes that catalyze the path from pyruvate |
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What chemicals in metabolism are oxidized and reduced |
. |
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How do enzymes work |
Enzymes are biological catalysts - substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without being used up. Enzymes are proteins folded into complex shapes that allow smaller molecules to fit into them |
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What are ways to alter the activity of enzymes |
Several factors affect the rate at which enzymatic reactions proceed - temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, and the presence of any inhibitors or activators. |
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What is meant by a denatured protein? How do you denature proteins? |
Denaturation is a process in which proteins or nucleic acids lose the quaternary structure, tertiary structure and secondary structure which is present in their native state, by application of some external stress or compound such as a strong acid or base, a concentrated inorganic salt, an organic solvent |
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What are ways of inhibiting enzymes |
The activity of many enzymes can be inhibited by the binding of specific small molecules and ions. |
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What is allosteric inhibition |
the process by which a regulatory molecule binds to an enzyme in a spot different from the active site for another molecule. |
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What is competitive inhibition |
a molecule similar to the substrate but unable to be acted on by the enzyme competes with the substrate for the active site. |
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What is the difference between fermentation and anaerobic respiration |
Fermentation extends glycolysis, the first stage of metabolism, to produce usable energy, while anaerobic respiration uses molecules other than oxygen to complete the metabolic cycle
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Explain the inputs and outputs of glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle and electron transport chain |
Glycolysis is found in all living organisms. Input: Glucose, 2 ATP, 4 ADP, 2 NAD+.Output (aerobic): 2 NADH, pyruvate, 2 ADP, 4 ATP. Net energy gain under aerobic conditions: 2 ATP, 2 NADH. Krebs cycle forms (per two molecules of pyruvic acid) two ATP molecules, ten NADH molecules, and two FADH2 molecules. The NADH and the FADH2 |
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Why is NADH more efficient at creating ATP than FADH2 |
Because NADH started with Complex I, it had more chances to pumps more protons across the gradient, which powers the ATP synthase and gives us 3 ATP per molecule of NADH. FADH2 produces 2 ATP during the ETC because it gives up its electron to Complex II, bypassing Complex I. |
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What is the final electron acceptor in anaerobic and aerobic respiration |
. |
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Where does cytochrome C oxidase reside? What test did we do to test for it? |
is a large transmembrane protein complex found in bacteria and the mitochondrion of eukaryoteThe oxidase test is a test used in microbiology to determine if a bacterium produces certaincytochrome c oxidases |
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What are the products of fermentation |
Sugars are the most common substrate of fermentation, and typical examples of fermentation products are ethanol, lactic acid, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen gas |
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Why does the cell perform fermentation |
if oxygen is not present, pyruvate is metabolized |
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What bacteria produce acid end products? What role do these have in food and human biology |
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What is the final ETC in aerobic and anaerobic respiration |
. |
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What other chemicals besides glucose can be converted to ATP |
Fats and proteins |
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What are example of carbohydrates |
foods include any sugars (sucrose or table sugar, glucose, fructose, lactose, maltose) and starches (found in pasta, bread, grains |
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What are the only organisms on earth that produce carbohydrates |
plants |
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What is the difference between growth and reproduction |
Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms are produced.
Growth is the irreversible increase in mass that results from cell division (number) and cell expansion (size). |
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Why is oxygen toxic |
hyperoxia, an excess of oxygen in body tissues |
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What are some ways that oxygen can be made non-toxic |
. |
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What are reactive oxygen species |
are chemically reactive chemical species containing oxygen |
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What is the purpose of the catalase test What enzyme does it test for What is the purpose |
demonstrate the presence of catalase, an enzyme that catalyses the release of oxygen from hydrogen peroxide |
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What are the names for the different aerotolerance of organisms |
an organism that tolerates the presence of oxygen but does not require it for growth. Instead, aerotolerant anaerobes use fermentation to survive. An example organism is lactobacillus, a bacteria that lives in the gut of humans and is also used in the production of yogurt. |
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What is the importance of temperature, pH, salt, water on growth |
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Why do organisms produce biofilms |
biofilm does have greater resistance to antimicrobials |
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What are biofilms |
a thin, slimy film of bacteria that adheres to a surface |
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What is the importance of osmotic and hydrostatic pressure |
Osmotic pressure is the pressure that is needed to stop the transfer of a fluid in a semi permeable membrane, while hydrostatic pressure is pressure applied on a point in a fluidSource: http://theydiffer.com/difference-between-hydrostatic-and-osmotic-pressure/ |
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Why does bacteria grow in the fridge |
Spoilage bacteria can grow at cold temperatures, such as in the refrigerator. Eventually they cause food to develop off or bad tastes and smells |
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What is the purpose of slants, stabs, streaks and serial dilutions |
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What is meant by a bacterial colony |
Bacteria grow on solid media as colonies. A colony is defined as a visible mass of microorganisms all originating from a single mother cell, therefore a colony constitutes a clone of bacteria all genetically alike. |
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What are ways you can preserve an organism |
Fossilization, Permineralization, Carbonization, |
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What is lag, log, stationary, and death phases when describing bacterial growth |
lag phase of the bacterial growth cycle, synthesis of RNA, enzymes and other molecules occurs log phase is a period characterized by cell doubling stationary phase is often due to a growth-limiting factor such as the depletion of an essential nutrient or inhibiting factor death phase (decline phase), bacteria die |
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What is meant by log phase growth |
log phase (sometimes called the logarithmic phase or the exponential phase) is a period characterized by cell doubling |
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What are ways to count bacterial colonies |
One approach is to set the Petri dish on a gridded background and count the cells in each grid cell Automated colony counters take an image of the dish, separate out the colonies from the background and then use an algorithm to count the colonies on the plate. |
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What is the purpose of counting colonies |
to estimate the number of cells present based on their ability to give rise to colonies under specific conditions of nutrient medium |
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How do antimicrobials work |
penetrate the cell wall of the microbe and disrupt key cell functions so the microbe cannot grow or reproduce |
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What are the ideal function of antimicrobial reagents |
kills microorganisms or inhibits their growth. |
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Why are some organisms harder to kill than others What are examples of these |
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What is the use-dilution tests |
method of testing the efficacy of disinfectants |
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What is the phenol-coefficient test |
the number indicating the effectiveness of a disinfectant as a germicide relative to phenol, which is arbitrarily assigned the number 1: based on the time required to kill a given quantity of a specific type of bacteria. |
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What are ways to increase the efficiency of antimicrobials |
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Why does moist heat work better than dry heat |
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What is the effects of desiccation, lyophilization, on organisms |
Desiccation is the state of extreme dryness, or the process of extreme drying. Lyophilization- vacuum freeze drying |
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What is the effect of ionizing radiation on organisms |
It may pass directly through the cell without causing any damage. It may damage the cell but the cell will repair itself. It may affect the cell’s ability to reproduce itself correctly, possibly causing a mutation.It may kill the cell. The death of one cell is of no concern but if too many cells in one organ such as the liver die at once, the organism will die. |
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What are different cellular targets for antimicrobial actions How do these chemicals affect the targets |
. |
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How does penicillin work Why does it only work on dividing cells |
It interferes with the synthesis of peptidoglycan. This weakens the cell walls of dividing bacteria, so they burst and die because of osmotic pressure |
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What is the role of PABA How does sulfa work in inhibiting this enzyme |
Folate synthesis requires a chemical reaction between 2 molecules, DHPP and PABA, that is catalyzed by DHPS. Bacteria resistant to sulfa drugs often have mutations in the DHPS enzyme. |
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What are different examples of nucleic acid analogs and how do they work |
nucleobases confer, among other things, different base pairing and base stacking properties |
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What are examples of preventing virus attachments |
block the receptor on the viral capsid |
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How do you determine efficacy of antimicrobials |
through testing |
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What are the best ways to administer antimicrobials |
orally |
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What are some safety issues with antimicrobials |
antimicrobial resistance antimicrobial toxicity |
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What are ways to reduce antimicrobial resistance |
Collect Data Stop Antibiotic Use on the Farm Reduce Inappropriate Antibiotic Use in Outpatients |
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What are some ways that bacteria become resistant to antibiotics |
through mutation of their genetic material or by acquiring pieces of DNA that code for the resistance properties from other bacteria. |
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What is a virus |
an infective agent that typically consists of a nucleic acid molecule in a protein coat, is too small to be seen by light microscopy, and is able to multiply only within the living cells of a host. |
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How do you determine if something is a virus |
Viruses are smaller than bacteria, antibiotics can not kill a virus, viruses are essentially dormant until it makes contact with a host |
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How are viruses packaged |
Many viruses assemble preformed capsids into which the genomic material is subsequently packaged |
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What is an enveloped and nonenveloped virus |
Enveloped viruses are made up of lipids and proteins Non enveloped viruses have a capsid coat |
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How do viruses ‘find’ their host |
In order for a virus to infect a cell, it must bring its DNA or RNA into contact with thehost cell. Therefore, infection requires that the virus get through the cellular membrane |
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What are on the outside of viruses |
a protein coat or capsid, sometimes enclosed within a membrane |
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What is a bacteriophage |
a virus that parasitizes a bacterium by infecting it and reproducing inside it. |
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What is the lytic versus the lysogenic life cycle |
lytic cycle, the phage replicates and lyses the host cell. In the lysogenic cycle, phage DNA is incorporated into the host genome, where it is passed on to subsequent generations. |
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What are examples of how viruses enter human cells |
A virus particle attaches to a host cell. The particle releases its genetic instructions into the host cell. The injected genetic material recruits the host cell's enzymes. The enzymes make parts for more new virus particles. The new particles assemble the parts into new viruses. The new particles break free from the host cell. |
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What is the length of time for viruses to cause disease |
any length of time |
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What are examples of viruses that cause disease |
Flu (influenza) Herpes. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV/AIDS) Human papillomavirus (HPV) |
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How do you reduce the spread of viruses |
Get the appropriate vaccine. Wash your hands frequently. Stay home if you are sick (so you do not spread the illness to other people). Use a tissue, or cough and sneeze into your arm, not your hand. |
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What is the process for making flu vaccines |
The virus-containing fluid is harvested from the eggs. For flu shots, the influenzaviruses for the vaccine are then inactivated (killed), and virus antigen is purified |
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What is MERS and why is it considered important |
Middle East respiratory syndrome |
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What is a prion and what human and animal diseases does it cause? |
are transmissible neurodegenerative conditions, mad cow disease |
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What are examples of mutualism, commensalism and parasitism |
Mutualism, where both organisms benefit. -Commensalism, where one organism benefits while the other organism is not harmed.
parasitism is a non-mutual symbiotic relationship between species, where one species, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other |
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How does the microbiome change |
Hygiene, defecating, time |
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What are ways that bacteria enter humans |
Eating, drinking, breathing |
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What is zoonoses and zoonotic reservoirs |
a disease that can be transmitted to humans from animals. |
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How do bacteria recognize human cells |
The basic components of DNA are the same in humans and bacteria.
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What is meant by parenteral routes |
Parenteral dosage forms are intended for administration as an injection or infusion. Common injection types are intravenous (into a vein), subcutaneous (under the skin), and intramuscular (into muscle). |
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What is meant by iatrogenic and what are examples |
a complication that happens to a person after getting medical treatment |
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What determines an organisms virulence |
The degree of damage caused by a microbe to its host |
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What are endotoxins and enterotoxins What are organisms that produce these |
Enterotoxin is a protein exotoxin released by a microorganism that targets the intestines, Staphylococcus aureus Endotoxin- a toxin that is present inside a bacterial cell and is released when the cell disintegrates. Botulism |
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What are the purpose of bacterial capsules |
The capsule is considered a virulence factor because it enhances the ability of bacteria to cause disease |
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What is the function of kinases and coagulases |
These enzymes have the ability to dissolve or create blood clots and to destroy materials that bind cells together and among other functions |
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What is the function of hyluronidase and collagenase in infection |
Hyluronidase- a family of enzymes that degrade hyaluronic acid Collagenase- |
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What is meant by incidence and prevalence |
Incidence rate is the number of new cases per population at risk in a given time period Prevalence is the actual number of cases alive |
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What is the role of epidemiology in disease |
is the study of the origin and causes ofdiseases in a community |
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What are reportable infections to the CDC |
Anthrax, Botulism, Arboviral diseases |
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What are examples of nosocomial infection |
hospital-acquired, Staph, E. Coli |
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What is meant by endemic, pandemic, epidemic and sporadic Examples of each |
Endemic- regularly found among particular people or in a certain area, Malaria Pandemic- an epidemic of infectious disease that has spread through human populations across a large region, Spanish Flu Epidemic-a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time. SARS Sporadic- occurring occasionally, singly, or in scattered instances, Mono |
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How do you determine an acid from a base? |
Count the hydrogens on each substance before and after the reaction. If the number of hydrogens has decreased that substance is the acid (donates hydrogen ions). If the number of hydrogens has increased that substance is the base (accepts hydrogen ions). |
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What is leading strand? |
synthesized continuously |
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Lagging strand |
replicated discontinuously in short sections |
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Helicase |
They separate double-stranded DNA into single strands allowing each strand to be copied. |
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Function of DNA polymerase I and III |
Polymerase I fills in the necessary nucleotides between the Okazaki fragments |
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Ligase |
An enzyme that can catalyze the joining of two large molecules by forming a new chemical bond |
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Primase |
An enzyme that synthesizes short RNA sequences called primer |
