Microbio Test 1 Review

Front 1

When did the scientific method start?

Back 1

In the late 1600s, scientific thinking emerged, and with it, the scientific method

Front 2

What is the scientific method?

Back 2

A method of answering questions and observations about the world in a way that allows us to draw scientific conclusions.

Based on the hypothetico-deductive method

Front 3

What is the hypothetico-Deductive method?

Back 3

1. Observation

2. Hypothesis

3. Testable prediction, that either passes or fails

4. Reject or accept hypothesis

5. Add to current knowledge, or come up with another experiment

Front 4

What is the difference between a hypothesis, a theory, and a law?

Back 4

A hypothesis is an estimated guess. A Theory is a hypothesis that has been proven over and over by multiple people. A Law is a theory that is now accepted as fact.

Front 5

Who makes hypothesis? Who makes laws?

Back 5

Scientists make hypotheses, the scientific community makes laws

Front 6

What is evolution and why is it important for a class like microbiology?

Back 6

Evolution is the concept of natural selection, and organisms changing over time due to genetic mutations that prove to have a increased benefit to the organisms. Evolution is useful to microbiology because it allows us to understand how cells have changed over time, and concepts such as the endosymbiotic theory.

Front 7

What is Microbiology?

Back 7

The study of very small organisms that can not be seen with the naked eye.

Front 8

What are the three main groups of microbes?

Back 8

Eukarya, Bacteria, Archaea

Front 9

What are the two main types of cells? What are their distinguishing characteristics?

Back 9

Prokaryotes- single celled, smaller, no organelles

Eukaryotes- may be single celled or multicellular, larger, have organelles

Front 10

What is the importance of microbes, in regards to human disease?

Back 10

Microbes live side by side, and inside of humans. Some microbes are beneficial to humans, such as intestinal flora that help digest food. Other microbes are disease-causing, that infect humans and cause disease.

Front 11

How were microbes discovered? Who discovered them?

Back 11

Leeuwenhoek first made a microscope and was the first person to describe bacteria. Hooke looked at cells under a microscope, and named them. Tyndall and later, Cohn, discovered and described endospores. Koch described the idea that a microbe is associated with a disease, and Pasteur came up with Germ Theory.

Front 12

Who create techniques to stop infection?

Back 12

Holmes and Semmelweis together described the importance of washing hands to prevent infection. Lister developed aseptic technique and Pasteur invented pasteurization.

Front 13

How was human disease linked to microbes?

Back 13

Semmelweis and Holmes described the phenomenon of many more women and babies dying when the baby was delivered by a physician who had been doing autopsies earlier. Pasteur described Germ Theory, by drawing on previous scientists and Koch established proofs that verifed Germ Theory

Front 14

How are Microbes used by humans to benefit us?

Back 14

Our intestinal flora aids us in digestion, we use yeast in beer and bread, cheese and yogurt use microbes, fungi producing penicillin

Front 15

What are Koch's postulates?

Back 15

1. Microbes are always in sick people

2. Microbes can be isolated and grown

3. Infection with microbe grown in labs can cause disease

4. You can then reisolate the microbe from infected persons

Front 16

What is nomenclature?

Back 16

The process of naming a new species according to a set of rules

Front 17

How do you properly write a name?

Back 17

Genus species (capitalized genus name, lower case species name, italicized when in print, underlined if written, if you want to shorten it- G. species

Front 18

What are the levels of organizations from Domain to Species?

Back 18

1. Domain

2. Kingdom

3. Phylogeny

4. Class

5. Order

6. Family

7. Genus

8. Species

Front 19

What is the 2-kingdom scheme?

Back 19

Darwin first hypothesized that there were two kingdoms- Animals and Plants

Front 20

What is the 5- kingdom scheme?

Back 20

Robert Whittaker:

Monera, Protozoa, Fungi, Plants, and Animals- based on morphological similarities

Front 21

What is the 3-domain scheme?

Back 21

Woese and Fox: The current scheme- Eukarya, Bacteria, Archaea, based on genetic similarities

Front 22

How has our perception of living organisms changed since Darwin?

Back 22

Darwin first came up with the two kingdom system that encompassed animals and plants. He had no knowledge of microbes. Now, with our current understanding, we know that bacteria and archaea are extremely diverse and genetically dissimilar

Front 23

What is an organic molecule?

Back 23

A molecule with carbon

Front 24

What about carbon allows it to bond in unique ways?

Back 24

Carbon bonds to four atoms or molecules, which allows it to create complex 3D and 4D structures

Front 25

What are the four biological macromolecules?

Back 25

Lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, carbs

Front 26

What are the basic subunits of lipids and the bonds that hold them together?

Back 26

Basic subunits are phospholipids, triglycerides, and sterols, held together via ester bonds

Front 27

What are the basic subunits of proteins and what are the bonds that hold them together?

Back 27

Amino acids, held together by peptide bonds

Front 28

what are the basic subunits of carbs and what bonds hold them together?

Back 28

Monosaccharides, held together by glycosidic bond

Front 29

What are the functions of carbs?

Back 29

Structural support (builds cell walls and cellulose), energy and nutrient stores

Front 30

What are the functions of lipids?

Back 30

Create cell membranes, which help with selective permeability.

Front 31

what are the functions of proteins?

Back 31

Provide structural support by building cytoskeletons, mechanical energy, and enzymes

Front 32

What glycosidic, ester, and peptide bonds? What is the chemistry behind how they bond things?

Back 32

They are bonds formed between the same macromolecules, that are formed through dehydration synthesis- removing H20 to bond the two molecules together

Front 33

What are the six characteristics of all cells?

Back 33

1. Spherical, cylindrical, cubical, or polygonal shaped

2. Cell membrane

3. Chromosomes

4. Able to produce energy from the environment

5. Able to reproduce

6. Ribosomes that produce proteins

Front 34

Why do viruses not qualify as cells, according to the 6 characteristics of all cells?

Back 34

Viruses rely on other organisms to produce energy, reproduce, come in different shapes, and do not have cytoplasmic membranes

Front 35

What is the endosymbiotic theory?

Back 35

The endosymbiotic theory is the theory that Eukaryotes took up Prokaryotes into their cell, and used the prokaryotes for a certain function, and the prokaryotes stayed in the cell because they became specialized to perform that specific function and were unable to live without the eukaryote

Front 36

What are 5 pieces of evidence for the endosymbiotic theory?

Back 36

1. Mitochondrial DNA is circular

2. Mitochondria reproduce via binary fission

3. Ribosomes on mitochondria look like bacteria ribosomes

4. Mitochondrial genes look like bacterial genes

5. Have both an inner and outer membrane

Front 37

What are differences between flagella and cilia?

Back 37

Cilia- small, lots of them, used for adhesion and digestion

Flagella- not as many as cilia, much larger, used only for movement

Front 38

Describe the glycocalyx

Back 38

The glycocalyx is the very outer membrane around a cell. AKA the extracellular matrix, composed of polysaccharides. The three layers are an acellular network of fibers, a slime layer, and a capsule.

Front 39

What is the Eukaryotic cell wall, and how is it different than bacterial cell walls?

Back 39

Eukaryotic cell walls are found in plants, fungi, and algae. They provide structural support and shape, and are composed of chitin, glycoprotein, and mixed glycans. Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan

Front 40

Describe the nucleus

Back 40

The nucleus is a membrane bound organ that houses DNA. It has nuclear pores that the mRNA leaves through. It is covered by two cell membranes, which are called the nuclear envelope

Front 41

Describe the Rough ER

Back 41

Called the rough ER because it is studded with ribosomes. The rough ER creates proteins and holds the proteins for packaging

Front 42

Describe the smooth ER

Back 42

synthesizes and stores non-protein molecules

Front 43

Describe the Golgi Apparatus

Back 43

Made of stacked, flattened sacs of membranes, this puts proteins into transitional or condensing vesicles, and sends them out to become lysosomes or secretory vesicles

Front 44

Describe lysosomes

Back 44

originate in the golgi apparatus, and contain a variety of enzymes. When the cell brings in a vesicle with food in it, the lysosome attached to the vesicle, and secretes enzymes, digesting the food

Front 45

What are vacuoles?

Back 45

A membrane bound sac that brings in food to the cell to be digested by the lysosome

Front 46

Describe the mitochondria

Back 46

"energy powerhouse"- a series of folded, flattened membranes called christae, surrounded by an outer membrane. The christae are studded with ribosomes. Mitochondria produces ATP via the electron transport chain. The matrix holds ribosomes, DNA, and enzymes used in metabolism

Front 47

Ribosomes

Back 47

Make proteins, are scattered throughout the cell- in the cytoplasm, mitochondria, rough ER

Front 48

Describe the cytoplasm

Back 48

a gelatinous solution that provides a spot for biochemical and enzymatic activities. Composed of water, sugars, amino acids, salts, chromatin, ribosomes, granules, and cytoskeleton

Front 49

What is a sporangium?

Back 49

A vegetative cell that has turned into a sporulating cell- takes 6-8 hours

Front 50

Describe the germination of an endospore

Back 50

Must have favorable conditions, which includes exposure to H20 and a germination agent. The core rehydrates and takes up nutrients, causing the bacterium to begin to grow

Front 51

What are some examples of endospores?

Back 51

Anthrax, Tetanus, and Botulism

Front 52

What is the definition of metabolism

Back 52

All chemical reactions that work inside a cell

Front 53

Anabolism

Back 53

Synthesizing and making the building blocks of macromolecules, using ATP

Front 54

Catabolism

Back 54

Breaking down macromolecules into their building blocks, releasing ATP

Front 55

What are enzymes used for?

Back 55

They are critical in regulating metabolism, because they speed up chemical reactions to the speed of life. If we did not have enzymes, reactions would occur too slowly.

Front 56

What are examples of catabolism?

Back 56

Glycolysis, Kreb's Cycle, Fermentation

Front 57

Are enzymes used up throughout a reaction?

Back 57

No, they can be reused over and over

Front 58

Describe how enzymes work

Back 58

Enzymes bind to a substrate, and change the structure of the substrate. They bind to the active site

Front 59

What are two kinds of enzymes?

Back 59

Simple (just folded protein), and conjugated (haloenzymes)

Front 60

What is the structure of conjugated enzymes?

Back 60

They are made of the apoenzyme, which is just the protein, and a cofactor, which is non-protein, that supports the apoenzyme.

Front 61

What happens when an enzyme denatures?

Back 61

The bonds are broken, changing the shape of the substrate. This causes a change in the active site, blocking the enzyme from binding to the substrate. Can lead to cell death

Front 62

Why would a bacterium create and secrete enzymes?

Back 62

To digest large cells or food molecules so the bacteria can digest them

Front 63

Endoenzymes vs. Exoenzymes

Back 63

Exo: created then released outside the cell

Endo: retained intracellularly

Front 64

What are constitutive enzymes?

Back 64

Enzymes that are always present in constant amounts, regardless of external conditions

Front 65

What are regulated enzymes?

Back 65

Enzymes whos levels in the cell are determined by outside conditions. They are repressed or induced depending on those conditions

Front 66

Competative Inhibition

Back 66

A molecule that resembles the substrate, and binds to the active site, blocking the enzyme from binding and acting on it

Front 67

What is an example of competative inhibition?

Back 67

Cyanide- a competative inhibitor for cytochrome C oxidase- stops the electron transport chain

Front 68

Non-competition Inhibition

Back 68

When the binding of enzymes to an active site is regulated by regulatory molecules, who are often the product of an enzymatic reaction

Front 69

What is an example of non-competition inhibition?

Back 69

Penicillin- binds to a bacterial enzyme that catalyzes the formation of peptinoglycan

Front 70

Enzyme repression

Back 70

Stops further synthesis and enzymatic reactions when the end product reaches excess

Front 71

Enzyme induction

Back 71

Induced when a suitable substrate is present

Front 72

Exoergonic-

Back 72

To release energy, used for cellular work

Front 73

Endergonic-

Back 73

driven by the addition of energy

Front 74

Glucose breaking down is what kind of reaction?

Back 74

Exergonic

Front 75

What is the point to all of the steps in breaking down glucose?

Back 75

You are able to capture and use more of the energy when it is released slowly, over many steps.

Front 76

How is energy released from ATP?

Back 76

You break the bond of the terminal phosphate

Front 77

What is the purpose of electron carriers?

Back 77

They slow the energy release from glucose

Front 78

Oxidation vs. REduction

Back 78

Oxidation: removal of an electron

Reduction: addition of an electron

Front 79

What are two common electron carriers?

Back 79

NAD and FAD

Front 80

What are the ways glucose is catabolized?

Back 80

An/Aerobic cellular respiration and fermentation

Front 81

What are the three steps in aerobic cellular respiration?

Back 81

Glycolysis, Kreb's Cycle, and electron transport chain

Front 82

What is the final electron receptor in aerobic respiration?

Back 82

Free oxygen

Front 83

What is the first step in aerobic, anaerobic cellular respiration and fermentation?

Back 83

Glycolysis

Front 84

How many ATP does glycolysis create?

Back 84

2 (but multiple electron carriers)

Front 85

Where does the Kreb's Cycle take place in Eukaryotes? In bacteria?

Back 85

Euks: in the mitochondrial matrix

Bacteria: in the cytoplasm

Front 86

Describe the Kreb's Cycle:

Back 86

A cyclical pathway of 8 reactions that starts and ends with acetyl CoA

Front 87

What is the point of the Kreb's Cycle?

Back 87

Adds electrons to electron carriers

Front 88

What is the point of the electron transport chain?

Back 88

A chain of special electron carriers that passes electrons to transport H+ outside the membrane, setting up an energy gradient. This energy gradient is used to turn ADP into ATP

Front 89

Where does the ETC take place in Euks? in Proks?

Back 89

Euk: in the inner membrane of the mitochondria

Proks: within the cell membrane

Front 90

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

Back 90

The coupling of ATP synthase to electron transport

Front 91

How many ATPs does the ETC create?

Back 91

34

Front 92

What must be present for the electron transport chain?

Back 92

Oxygen

Front 93

What is the final acceptor in anaerobic respiration?

Back 93

oxygen-containing ions, N03, S04

Front 94

What is the point of nitrate and nitrite reduction systems?

Back 94

The organisms that have these systems metabolize nitrate into nitrite, which allows other organisms to metabolize it. An important step in recycling nitrogen in the biosphere

Front 95

Denitrification

Back 95

enzymes that further reduce nitrite to nitric oxide, nitrous oxide, and nitrogen gas

Front 96

Fermentation

Back 96

Oxygen is not required, and organic compounds are the final electron acceptors

Front 97

What are the steps of fermentation?

Back 97

Glycolysis, then either acid fermentation or alcohol fermentation

Front 98

What are the steps in ETOH fermentation?

Back 98

Glucose---- pyruvic acid----- ETOH and CO2

Front 99

What are the two kinds of acidic fermentation?

Back 99

Homolactic fermentation- produces lactic acid

Heterolactic fermentation- lactic acid, acetic acid, and C02

Front 100

Who uses mixed acid fermentation?

Back 100

Bacteria and some insects, who use the formic acid for protection

Front 101

What is catabolism of proteins due to?

Back 101

-excess protein intake

-extreme starvation

-DKA

Front 102

What are the steps of protein catabolism?

Back 102

1. Proteases break down proteins

2. Amino acids get broken down and their amino groups removed

3. The remaining carbon group enters the Kreb's cycle and electron transport chain

Front 103

How many ATP does lipid catabolism yield?

Back 103

50 ATP

Front 104

What are lipids best for?

Back 104

Long term energy storage

Front 105

Amphibolism

Back 105

ability of a cell to integrate anabolic and catabolic pathways to improve cell efficiency, often done using precursors

Front 106

What are two common precursors?

Back 106

Pyruvate: provides intermediates for amino acids,used in gluconeogenesis

Acetyl CoA: can be converted into amino avids, which can then be condensed into lipids and fatty acids

Front 107

How many amino acids are there?

Back 107

20

Front 108

Describe lipid biosynthesis

Back 108

excess carbs turned to lipids