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57 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what is the definition of anabolism? |
to build up (+ΔG) |
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what is the definition of catabolism? |
to break down (-ΔG) |
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what are enzymes made up of? |
apoenzyme: an inactive protein + coenzyme: a needed organic molecule (called a cofactor if it's inorganic) = holoenzyme: the combination of an apoenzyme + a coenzyme; a fully functioning enzyme |
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what is direct control? |
inhibition feedback (acts like a furnace's thermostat) |
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what is chemical control? |
chemical inhibition (competitive inhibition) |
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what is an inducer molecule? |
acts as an "on again switch" -- attaches to the repressor and negates its effect |
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how much ATP do you get from Glycolysis? |
2 |
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how much ATP do you get from Krebs Cycle? |
2 |
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how much ATP do you get from the Electron Transport Chain? |
34 |
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what does it mean if the metabolic pathway is aerobic? |
they do cellular respiration -- oxygen required!
glycolysis, transition, Kreb's Cycle, Electron Transport Chain |
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what does it mean if the metabolic pathway is anaerobic? |
they do fermentation -- no oxygen required!
glycolysis, alcohol fermentation, or lactic acid fermentation |
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what are photoautotrophs? |
self feeders
they need a carbon source (CO2), energy source (sunlight), and they release oxygen
ie. plants, algae, cyanobacteria |
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what does fastidious mean? |
picky |
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what elements are required in large amounts (macronutrients)? |
water carbon nitrogen (necessary for protein synthesis) sulfur (from proteins) vitamins (coenzymes -- organic-- for enzymatic reactions) |
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what elements are required in small (trace) amounts? |
metallic elements: Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, Zn, Cu, Na, K, Se, Al, etc. |
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what are psychrophiles? |
cold-loving bacteria |
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what are mesophiles? |
medium-temperature loving bacteria |
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what are thermophiles? |
heat-loving bacteria |
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what does thermoduric mean? |
mesophiles that can survive high temperatures for a short period of time (can survive pasteurization) |
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what are obligate aerobes? |
must have oxygen |
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what are obligate anaerobes? |
can only survive without oxygen |
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what are facultative anaerobes? |
can survive with or without oxygen |
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what are microaerophiles? |
small amounts of oxygen |
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what does aerotolerant mean? |
indifferent to oxygen |
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what are the steps of binary fission in bacteria? |
1. parental cell grows 2. genetic material replicates 3. transverse septum forms 4. cell divides (forms 2 identical daughter cells) |
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what is the lag phase? |
bacteria adjust to the new environment
initial growth is slow |
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what is the log phase? |
exponential growth
the most rapid rate of cell division (high birth rate) |
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what is the stationary phase? |
the number of viable cells remains the same over a given time (birth rate = death rate)
the birth rate declines due to reduction in available nutrients
the death rate increases due to the toxic build up of metabolic waste products |
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what is the death phase? |
the death rate increases faster than the birth rate (results in a decrease in the number of viable cells) |
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spirochetes |
spirillum
found in contaminated water, soil, and in humans
motile (axial filament)
aerobic and facultatively anaerobic
examples: Treponeme pallidum (syphilis), Borella spp. (Lyme disease -- ticks and lice as vectors) |
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facultatively anaerobic gram negative rods |
*can survive in the presence or absence of oxygen*
1. enterobacteriaceae: live in GI tract, active fermenters of carbos, non-motile or motile, fimbriae/pili examples: Escherichia (E. coli), Salmonella (all potentially pathogenic, Salmonella spp. = food poisoning, Salmonella typhi), Klebsiella (Klebsiella pneumoniae -- common in pediatric wards), Serratia (Serratia marcescens -- UTI, RTI, nosocomial infections), Proteus (UTI, wounds), Yersinia (Yersinia pestis - bubonic plague), Enterobacter (Enterobacter aerogenes -- UTI, nosocomial infections)
2. Vibrionacaea: Vibrio cholerae (Asian cholera)
3. Pasturellaceae: Pasteurella (domestic animals/livestock), Hemophilus (in mucous membranes of mouth, URT, GI tract; Hemophilus influenzae -- otitis media, epiglottis, meningitis; Gardnerella vaginalis
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gram positive cocci |
medically important
Staphylococcus spp. high survival rates due to thick wall produce toxins: Leukocidin (kills WBCs), Necrotizing exotoxin (forms boils), enterotoxin (food poisoning) Staphylococcus aureus
Streptococcus spp. many varieties can effect RBCs classify with blood agar: alpha-hemolytic (green zone around colony), beta-hemolytic (clear zone around colony), non-hemolytic (no effect on RBCs) Streptococcus pyogenes (strep throat) Streptococcus mutans (dental caries)
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endospore-forming gram positive rods and cocci |
heat and chemical resistant (because they're spore formers)
aerobic or anaerobic
medically important
three genera: Bacillus spp. (Bacillus cerus -- food poisoning)
Clostridium spp. [strictly anaerobic] (Clostridium tetani -- lockjaw, Clostridium botulism -- food poisoning, Clostridium perfringes -- gas gangrene, Clostridium difficile)
Sporosarcina -- rare, only one species and we don't usually have issues with it |
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mycobacteria |
Gram positive
thick peptidoglycan layer
aerobic
non-motile rods
acid fast
mycolic acid layer
examples: Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium leprae |
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actinomycetes |
long branched filaments
inhabit soil
Gram positive
Examples: Rhizobium (found on nodules of roots "fix" nitrogen -- legumes. ecologically important) and Stretpomyces (antibiotics! all -mycin antibiotics) |
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what is the definition of a spore? |
a stage in bacteria's life cycle when it is not metabolizing |
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viral characteristics |
ultramicroscopic (20-400 nM), non-cellular infectious particles, non-living, obligate intracellular parasites |
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viral structure |
1 type of nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA) is the nucleic acid core
+ a protein shell for protection (called a capsid) |
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viral characteristics used for classification |
morphology (naked, enveloped, phage, 3D shape)
nucleic acid type (DNA -- ssDNA or dsDNA, RNA-- ssRNA or dsRNA)
tissue affinity dermotrophic -- chicken pox, herpes, measles pneumotrophic -- flu, cold, viral pneumonia neurotrophic -- polio, rabies, encephalitis viscerotrophic -- mumps [salivary glands], hepatitis [liver]
host range broad [ie. rabies affects all mammals] intermediate [ie. polio affects humans, apes, monkeys] narrow [ie. hepatitis B affects only humans]
viral taxonomy no kingdom, phylum, etc. do have family names (end in viridae) and genus names (end in virus) no species names -- may be some |
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what are the characteristics of viral capsid |
protein shell, surrounds and protects the nucleic acid core, has a 3D shape (icosahedron, helicals/naked, complex/variable), made of repeating protein subunits called capsomeres that assemble the viral capsid |
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herpesviruses |
dsDNA (linear chromosomal arrangement)
120-200k nucleotides
icosahedral
enveloped |
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retroviruses |
2 ssRNA viruses
3.5-9k nucleotides
icosahedral
enveloped
has reverse transcriptase -- an enzyme. can result in errors --> mutations
HIV
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poxviruses |
dsDNA
130-280k nucleotides
brick shaped
naked
smallpox
myxoma
fibroma viruses cause benign tumors
**chicken pox is not a pox virus!** |
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RNA vs. DNA in viruses |
ssDNA dsDNA
ssRNA dsRNA
linear or circular shape |
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which viral family(ies) cause the flu? |
Orthomyoxoveridae: 8 linear ssRNA molecules, 13.6k nucleotides, helical, enveloped |
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viral replication in animal cells |
1. adsorption (same process as in bacteriophages)
2. penetration naked virus -- engulfed by host cell via receptor-mediated endocytosis enveloped virus -- fuse with host cell membrane and viral nucleocapsid gets released into cytoplasm
3. uncoating (removal of capsid & release of nucleic acid)
4. replication (replicate viral nucleic acids & protein synthesis)
5. assembly (same as bacteriophage)
6. release lysis of host cell releases new naked virons OR budding -- host cell membrane is used as envelope, takes longer, cell death still occurs |
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lytic cycle |
lyse or burst open host cells
tend to be very virulent -- kills host in hours |
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lysogenic cycle |
cannot escape death, just postpone
host cell can survive for a longer period (temperate)
not as virulent as lytic cycle (avirulent) |
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stages of the lytic cycle of a bacteriophage (sequence) |
1. adsorption 2. penetration 3. replication 4. assembly 5. release |
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stages of the lysogenic cycle of a bacteriophage (sequence) |
1. adsorption 2. penetration into host bacteria's main chromosome 3. now called viral prophage -- host cell divides 4. induction happens to send cell into... 5. replication 6. assembly 7. release |
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what is the process of anabolism? |
not spontaneous -- requires constant input of energy, not just initial activation
endergenic
examples: protein synthesis, photosynthesis, anabolic steroids |
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what is the process of catabolism? |
releases energy (like a lighter)
spontaneous
exergenic
examples: cellular respiration (breakdown of glucose) -- produces ATP energy that we need to perform anabolic processes |
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what is a repressor molecule? |
acts as an "off switch" -- where promoter & operator regions of DNA overlap |
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what are the characteristics of enzymes? |
globular proteins -- biological catalysts
increase reaction rates (properly lines up molecules & increases the rate of collision among molecules)
are very specific -- like a lock and key
are not used up in the process (recycled!)
reduces activation energy |
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what is a noncompetitive inhibitor? |
"allosteric inhibitor"
acts like a C-clamp; squeezes the enzyme, changing the shape of the active site, thus preventing its binding with a substrate |
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what is genetic control? |
inducers turn on genes to make more enzyme when substrate levels are high, repressors turn off genes when there are high levels of of products |
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what is a competitive inhibitor? |
can join with enzymes like a substrate, but then do not allow substrate to join the enzyme, so the enzyme does not do what it is meant to do |
