Micro

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matter

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is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass

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elements

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the smallest particles of which are atoms

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chemical compounds

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chemical elements usually do not exist in free form, the occur in combinations called chemical compounds

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atomic nucleus

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the center of the atom

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protons

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the atomic nucleus consists of charged particles called protons

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neutrons

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particles without charge

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atomic weight (atomic mass)

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of an atom is equal to the sum of protons and neutrons

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atomic number

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indicates the number of protons in the atomic nucleus

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electrons

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surrounding the atomic nucleus in shells are negatively charged subatomic particles called electrons

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chemical bond

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the outermost shell is not complete, the atom can participate in a chemical reaction and form a chemical bond

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valence electrons

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electrons in the outermost shell of an atom that are available for chemical bonding are called valence electrons

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isotopes

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are atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons

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ions

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are electrically charged atoms, molecules, or subatomic particles that are formed when one or more valence electrons are transferred from one atom to another

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if an atom loses one or more electrons to another atom, it becomes positive, whereas the atom that gains the electron becomes negative

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atom

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cations are positively charged cations, and in an electric field move toward the negative pole, the cathode.

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negatively charged ions, referred to as anions, move toward the positive pole, or anode, of an electric field

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covalent bonds

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result from a sharing of electrons between two atoms of the same element or between atoms of different elements.

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nonpolar covalent bond

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when the electrons are equally distributed , the resulting molecule is nonpolar

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polar covalent bonds

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covalent bonds between atoms of two different-sized elements are polar covalent bonds, in which the electrons are unequally distributed because they are pulled toward the larger atom

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ionic bonds

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are formed when one or more electrons from one atom are transferred to another

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hydrogen bonds

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are weak chemical bonds with only about 5% of the strength of covalent bonds.

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types of chemical reactions

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dehydration systhesis(condensation)
hydrolysis (decomposition)
endergonic (energy-requiring) reactions
exergonic (energy-producing) reactions
oxidation and reduction (redox)
exchange reactions

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dehydration synthesis

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or condensation, the the formation of a larger compound (polymer) from smaller ones (monomers). monomers are the unit molecules (building blocks) of these larger molecules, called polymers

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hydrolysis (decomposition)

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breaks down large molecules (polymers) into their unit molecules (monomers). an example of hydrolysis is the breakdown of nutrient molecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids into smaller molecules during the digestive process

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exergenic reactions

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reactions that yield energy

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endergonic reactions

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reactions that utilize energy

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redox (reduction-oxidative)

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reactions are chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number (oxidation state) changed

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an oxidation reaction does not occur without a reduction reaction happening at the same time

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oxidation

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oxidation

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is the loss of electrons and is a common reaction in the production of cellular energy.

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acids

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substances that release hydrogen ions

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based

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substances that release hydroxyl ions

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buffer

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a system of molecules and ions that stabilize the pH of a solution by resisting changed in the H+ concentration of the solution

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isotonic

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the solute concentration and hence the osmotic pressure within the cell (intracellular) is the same as it is outside of the cell (extracellular). a cell placed in an isotonic solution will not change its cell volume

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hypertonic

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the solute concentration in the cell is less than in the extracellular environment, which causes a net loss of water from the cell, resulting in cell shrinkage

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hypotonic

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the solute concentration in the extracellular environment is less than that inside the cell (intracellular), causing the uptake of water into the cell, resulting in the bursting of the cell

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hydrophilic (water loving)

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water soluble compounds

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hydrophobic (water repelling)

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and insoluble in water because of their inability to form hydration spheres

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monosaccharides

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are simple sugars that contain three to seven carbon atoms and an aldehyde group or a keto group.

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disaccharides

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are compounds formed when two monosaccharides combine with the loss of a water molecule

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sucrose:composed of glucose and fructose
lactose: composed of glucose and galactose
maltose: composed of two glucose molecules

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polysaccharides are formed when many monosaccharides combine to form a larger compound. starch in plants and glycogen in animals are polysaccharide storage forms of glucose.

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20 known naturally occurring amino acids and they are the monomers of proteins alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine

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phenylalanine, proline, serine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, valine

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triglycerides

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fats and oils consist of glycerol and fatty acid chains. at room temperature fats are solid whereas oils are liquid.

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phospholipids

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consists of glycerol, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group at one end

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DNA

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is a nucleic acid with a double helix structure containing the sugar deoxyribose and 10 bases per turn

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RNA

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is similar to DNA but is a single stranded molecule, its sugar is ribose, and uracil replaces thymine

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ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

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is the energy molecule of cells, when energy is released during catabolism it is captured in the high energy bonds of ATP.