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159 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Leadership
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As a process, the use of noncoercive influence to shape the group's or organization's goals, motivate behavior toward the achievement of those goals, and help define group or organizational culture; as a property, the set of characteristics attributed to individuals who are perceived to be leaders.
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Leaders
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People who can influence the behaviors of others w/out having to rely on force; those accepted by others as leaders.
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Power
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The ability to affect the behavior of others.
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Legitimate power
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Power granted through the organizational hierarchy; the power defined by the organization to be accorded to people occupying particular positions.
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Reward power
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The power to give or withhold rewards, such as salary increases, bonuses, promotions, praise, recognition, and interesting job assignments; the ability of an agent (person w/ power) to influence targets (people the agent is influencing) through giving them something they desire in exchange for compliance.
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Coercive power
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The power to force compliance by means of psychological, emotional, or physical threat; ability of an agent to influence targets through withholding a negative consequence in exchange for compliance (EX: supervisor threatens to fire an employee if the don't comply.)
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Referent power
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The personal power that accrues to someone based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma; power due to the target liking the agent or wanting to be like the agent (EX: celebrity spokespeople).
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Consideration behavior
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The behavior of leaders who show concern for subordinates and attempt to establish a warm, friendly, and supportive climate.
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Concern for production
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The part of the Leadership Grid that deals w/ the job and task aspects of leader behavior.
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Concern for people
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The part of the Leadership Grid that deals w/ the human aspects of leader behavior.
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LPC theory
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A theory of leadership that suggests that the appropriate style of leadership varies w/ situational favorableness.
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Least-preferred coworker (LPC) measure
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The measuring scale that asks leaders to describe the person w/ whom he or she is able to work least well.
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Path-goal theory
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A theory of leadership suggesting that the primary functions of a leader are to make valued or desired rewards available in the workplace and to clarify for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to those rewards.
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Vroom's decision tree approach
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Predicts what kinds of situations call for different degrees of group participation.
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Leader-member exchange (LMX) model
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Stresses that leaders have different kinds of relationships w/ different subordinates.
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Substitutes for leadership
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A concept that identifies situations in which leader behaviors are neutralized or replaced by characteristics of subordinates, the task, and the organization.
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Charismatic leadership
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Assumes that charisma is an individual characteristic of the leader.
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Charisma
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A form of interpersonal attraction that inspires support & acceptance.
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Transformational leadership
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Leadership that goes beyond ordinary expectations by transmitting a sense of mission, stimulating learning experiences, and inspiring new ways of thinking.
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Strategic leadership
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The capability to understand the complexities of both the organization & its environment and to lead change in the organization in order to achieve and maintain a superior alignment between the organization and its environment.
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Political behavior
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The activities carried out for the specific purpose of acquiring, developing, and using power and other resources to obtain one's preferred outcomes.
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Impression management
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A direct and intentional effort by someone to enhance his or her image in the eyes of others.
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Group
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Two or more people who interact regularly to accomplish a common purpose or goal.
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Functional group
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A permanent group created by the organization to accomplish a number of organizational purposes w/ an unspecified time horizon.
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Informal or interest group
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Created by its members for purposes that may or may not be relevant to those of the organization.
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Task group
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A group created by the organization to accomplish a relatively narrow range of purposes within a stated or implied time horizon.
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Team
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A group of workers that functions as a unit, often w/ little or no supervision, to carry out work-related tasks, functions, and activities.
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Roles
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The parts individuals play in groups in helping the group reach its goals.
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Role structure
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The set of defined roles and interrelationships among those roles that the group members define and accept.
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Role ambiguity
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Arises when the sent role is unclear and the individual does not know what is expected of him or her.
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Role conflict
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Occurs when the messages and cues composing the sent role are clear but contradictory or mutually exclusive.
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Role overload
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Occurs when expectations for the role exceed the individual's capabilities to perform.
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Norms
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Standards of behavior that the group accepts or and expects of its members.
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Socialization
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Generalized norm conformity that occurs as a person makes the transition from being an outsider to being an insider in the organization.
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Cohesiveness
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The extent to which members are loyal and committed to the group; the degree of mutual attractiveness within the group.
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Informal leader
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A person who engages in leadership activities but whose right to do so has not been formally recognized by the organization or group.
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Managers and leaders differ in how they . . .
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1) Create an agenda
2) Develop a rationale for achieving the agenda 3) Execute plans 4) Types of outcomes they achieve |
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How managers create an agenda:
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Planning and Budgeting. Establishing detailed steps and timetables for achieving needed results; allocating the resources necessary to make those needed results happen.
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How managers develop a human network for achieving the agenda:
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Organizing and Staffing. Establishing some structure for accomplishing plan requirements, staffing that structure w/ individuals, delegating responsibility and authority for carrying out the plan, providing policies and procedures to help guide people, and creating methods or systems to monitor implementation.
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How managers execute plans:
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Controlling and Problem Solving. Monitoring results versus planning in some detail, identifying deviations, and then planning and organizing to solve these problems.
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Outcomes of management:
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Produces a degree of predictability and order and has the potential to produce consistently major results expected by various stakeholders (EX: for customers, always being on time; for stockholders, being on budget).
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How leaders create an agenda:
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Establishing Direction. Developing a vision of the future, often the distant future, and strategies for producing the changes needed to achieve that vision.
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How leaders develop a human network for achieving the agenda:
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Aligning People. Communicating the direction by words and deeds to everyone whose cooperation may be needed to influence the creation of teams and coalitions that understand the visions and strategies and accept their validity.
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How leaders execute plans:
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Motivating and Inspiring. Energizing people to overcome major political, bureaucratic, and resource barriers by satisfying very basic, but often unfulfilled, human needs.
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Outcomes for leaders:
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Produces change, often to a dramatic degree, and has the potential to produce extremely useful change (EX: new products that customers want, new approaches to labor relations that help make a firm more competitive).
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Reference power is based on:
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1) Identification
2) Imitation 3) Loyalty 4) Charisma |
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Common forms of power:
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1) Legitimate
2) Reward 3) Coercive 4) Referent 5) Expert |
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Leadership Grid:
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Method of evaluating leadership styles.
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The overall objective of an organization using the Grid is to . . .
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train its managers using organization development techniques so that they are simultaneously more concerned for both people and production.
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Country Club Management (1,9)
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Thoughtful attention to the needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo.
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Team Management (9,9)
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Work accomplishment is from committed people; interdependence through a "common stake" in organization purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect.
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Middle of the Road Management (5,5)
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Adequate organization performance is possible through balance the necessity to get out work w/ maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level.
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Impoverished Management (1,1)
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Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership.
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Authority-Compliance (9,1)
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Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree.
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Fielder's LPC theory of leadership suggests that . . .
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appropriate leader behavior varies as a function of the favorableness of the situation.
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Favorableness is defined by:
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1) Task structure
2) Leader-member relations 3) Leader's position power |
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According to the LPC theory, the most and least favorable situations call for ____-________ leadership, whereas moderately favorable situations suggest the need for ____________-________ leadership.
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task-oriented, relationship-oriented
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Subordinates' personal characteristics:
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1) Perceived ability
2) Locus of control |
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Leader behaviors:
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1) Directive
2) Supportive 3) Participative 4) Achievement oriented |
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Environmental characteristics:
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1) Task structure
2) Work group |
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Vroom's time-driven decision tree is recommended for situations where ____ is of the highest importance in making a decision.
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time
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Vroom's development-driven decision tree is to be used when the leader is more interested in __________ _________ than in making the decision as quickly as possible.
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developing employees
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Five decision-making styles:
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1) Decide: the manager makes the decision alone & then announces or "sells" it to the group.
2) Consult (individually): the manager presents the program to group members individually, obtains their suggestions, and then makes the decision. 3) Consult (group): The manager presents the problem to group members at a meeting, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision. 4) Facilitate: the manger presents the problem to the group at a meeting, defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as they make the decision. 5) Delegate: the manager allows the group to define for itself the exact nature and parameters of the problem and then to develop a solution. |
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Key factor in the nature of the LMX Model:
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Whether the individual subordinate is in the leader's out-group or in-group.
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Two generic approaches to leadership:
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1) The trait approach to leadership assumed that some basic trait or set of traits differentiated leaders from nonleaders.
2) The leadership behavior approach to leadership assumed that the behavior of effective leaders was somehow different from the behavior of nonleaders. |
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Related leadership perspectives:
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1) Concept of substitutes for leadership
2) Charismatic leadership 3) Role of transformational leadership in organizations |
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Emerging approaches to leadership:
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1) Strategic leadership
2) Cross-cultural leadership 3) Ethical leadership |
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Types of teams:
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1) Problem-solving team: most popular type of team; comprises knowledge workers who gather to solve a specific problem and then disband.
2) Management team: consists mainly of managers from various functions like sales and production; coordinates work among other teams. 3) Work team: an increasingly popular type of team; work teams are responsible for the daily work of the organization; when empowered, they are self-managed teams. 4) Virtual team: a new type of work team that interacts by computer; members enter and leave the network as needed and may take turns serving as leaders. 5) Quality circle: declining in popularity, quality circles, comprising workers and supervisors, meet intermittently to discuss workplace problems. |
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As groups mature, they tend to evolve through four distinct stages of development:
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1) Forming: members get acquainted and test interpersonal behaviors.
2) Storming: members develop group structure and patterns of interaction. 3) Norming: members share acceptance of roles and sense of unity. 4) Performing: members enact roles and direct effort toward goal attainment and performance. |
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Development of a role:
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Group processes:
1) Expected role 2) Sent role Individual processes: 3) Perceived role 4) Enacted role |
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Factors that increase cohesiveness:
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1) Intergroup (against other group) competition
2) Personal attraction (similarities) 3) Favorable evaluation by others 4) Agreement on goals 5) Interaction (frequent communication) |
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Factors that reduce cohesiveness:
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1) Group size
2) Disagreement on goals 3) Intragroup (within-group) competition 4) Domination 5) Unpleasant experiences |
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From the manager's perspective, high cohesiveness combined w/ high performance norms is the ____ situation, and high cohesiveness with low performance norms is the _____ situation.
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best, worst
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T/F: Managers who can influence the level of cohesiveness and performance norms can greatly improve the effectiveness of a work group.
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TRUE
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T/F: An optimal level of conflict that sparks motivation, creativity, innovation, and initiative can result in higher levels of performance.
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TRUE
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Methods for managing conflict:
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1) Stimulating conflict
2) Controlling conflict 3) Resolving & eliminating conflict |
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Stimulating conflict:
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1) Increase competition among individuals & teams.
2) Hire outsiders to shake things up. 3) Change established procedures. |
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Controlling conflict:
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1) Expand resource base.
2) Enhance coordination of interdependence. 3) Set superordinate goals. 4) Match personalities and work habits of employees. |
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Resolving & eliminating conflict:
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1) Avoid conflict.
2) Convince conflicting parties to compromise. 3) Bring conflicting parties together to confront and negotiate conflict. |
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General kinds of groups in organizations:
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1) Functional groups
2) Informal or interest groups 3) Task groups and teams |
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People join functional groups and teams to . . .
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pursue a career.
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Reasons for joining informal or interest groups:
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1) Interpersonal attraction
2) Group activities 3) Group goals 4) Need satisfaction 5) Potential instrumental benefits |
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Expert power
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Power based on having the knowledge and/or skills that the target needs (EX: defense lawyer for someone recently arrested).
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Leadership (process):
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Behaviors that people use to influence others to work toward common goals.
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Leadership (property):
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Characteristics that “leaders” have.
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__________ deals w/ maintaining the status quo while _______ establish direction & look to create change to make sure that they're motivating/inspiring followers.
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Management, leaders
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Is leadership born or learned?
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It's a matter of opinion. Some people are more naturally inclined, but there are certainly things you can learn.
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Leadership traits:
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1) Intelligence
2) People w/ a wider breadth of interest |
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Autocratic Style
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The leader uses strong, directive, controlling actions to enforce the rules, regulations, activities, & relationships; followers have little discretionary influence.
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Democratic Style
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The leader takes collaborative, reciprocal, interactive actions with followers; followers have high degree of discretionary influence.
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Laissez-Faire Style
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The leader fails to accept the responsibilities of the position; creates chaos in the work environment.
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Initiating Structure
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Leader behavior aimed at defining and organizing work relationships and roles; establishing clear patterns of organization, communication, and ways of getting things done.
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Consideration
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Leader behavior aimed at nurturing friendly, warm working relationships, as well as encouraging mutual trust and interpersonal respect within the work unit.
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Expectancy theory
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Suggests that motivation depends on two things--how much we want something & how likely we think we are to get it.
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T/F: According to the Path-Goal theory, leadership behavior is contingent on the situation.
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TRUE
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When are leaders not needed?
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1) Routine jobs
2) No change 3) People are intrinsically motivated (professors) 4) Personal characteristics: high ability, experience, professional orientation |
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Charismatic leaders:
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1) Envision future, set high expectations, model expected behaviors
2) Energize others to work toward goals 3) Supports others, empathizes w/ them, expresses confidence. |
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Transformational leadership:
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1) Inspirational motivation
2) Intellectual stimulation 3) Idealized influence 4) Individual consideration |
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Perceptual screens
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Influence message quality, accuracy, and clarity; include age, gender, values, beliefs, culture, experiences, and needs.
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Basic Communication Model focuses on ________: the ability to transmit clear & precise messages.
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accuracy
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Organizational problems:
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1) Reliance of technology
2) Dominance of e-mail 3) Less face-to-face communication 4) Often a lack of positive relationships in the workplace |
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__% of employees recognize communication problems in their organization but only __% felt a strong need to improve their own skill level.
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80, 20
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Barriers to effective communication:
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1) Filtering or distorting information (only bring in information that's consistent w/ our beliefs)
2) Rumors 3) Lack of or inappropriate feedback 4) Poor listening 5) Defensiveness and disconfirmation 6) Diversity & differences in linguistic styles |
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Poor listening habits:
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1) Not paying attention
2) Pseudo-listening 3) Listening but not hearing 4) Rehearsing 5) Interrupting 6) Hearing what's expected 7) Feeling defensive 8) Listening for a point of disagreement |
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Defensiveness
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1) One individual feels threatened or attacked
2) Self-protection becomes paramount 3) Energy is spent on constructing a defense 4) Aggression, anger, competitiveness, and/or avoidance as a result of that communication |
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Disconfirmation
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1) Individual feels incompetent, unworthy, or insignificant
2) Attempts to reestablish self-worth take precedence 3) Energy is spent on trying to portray self-importance 4) Showing off, self-centered behavior, withdrawal, and/or loss of motivation are common reactions |
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____ speech dominates in the business world.
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Male
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Masculine talk:
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1) Use talk to assert yourself
2) Personal disclosures make you vulnerable 3) Use talk to establish your status and power 4) Talking should convey information and accomplish goals; extraneous details get in the way and don't achieve anything. |
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Feminine talk:
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1) Use talk to build and sustain rapport
2) Share yourself and learn about others 3) Use talk to create symmetry/equality 4) Talking enhances relationships; details and interesting side comments increase the depth of connection |
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Nonverbal communication:
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1) Proxemics--an individual's perception & use of space (acceptable personal space)
2) Kinesics--study of body movements, including posture (EX: middle finger) 3) Facial & eye behavior--movements that add cues for the receiver (EX: smiling) 4) Paralanguage--variations in speech, such as pitch, loudness, tempo, tone, duration, laughing, & crying |
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Attributes of supportive communication:
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1) Congruent
2) Descriptive rather than evaluative (EX: "I saw you taking a nap at work" vs. "You're lazy.") 3) Problem-oriented 4) Validating ("I can see your pt.") 5) Specific (avoid never & always!) 6) Conjunctive 7) Owned ("I believe" NOT "everyone thinks") 8) Supportive listening |
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Responding to others:
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1) Advising (EX: "You should. . . ")
2) Deflecting (EX: "I've dealt w/ that. . . ") 3) Probing--asking questions 4) Reflecting--repeating back |
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Deflecting:
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1) Positives: empathetic
2) Negatives: shifts focus, no solution, annoying |
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Probing:
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1) Positives: focus didn't switch, understanding more
2) Negatives: feeling violated/annoyed |
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Reflecting:
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1) Positives: focus remains on communicator
2) Negatives: Annoying, slow |
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Upward communication:
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1) Regularly communicate w/ your boss
2) Make sure you know his/her goals for you & how (s)he would prioritize these goals 3) Seek feedback 4) Listen to feedback w/out being defensive 5) Make necessary changes |
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T/F: Communication skills are most desired trait of prospective managers & employees.
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TRUE
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7 Elements of Leadership:
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1) Laugh
2) Learn 3) Listen 4) Language 5) Lagniappe 6) Legacy 7) Love |
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People who have ___ self-esteem are ____ susceptible to conformity.
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low, more
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Positive outcomes of cohesiveness:
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More efficient, respect each other more, less conflict, work harder to not let our team down, more likely to stay in the group, etc.
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Negative outcomes of cohesiveness:
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Conflict is more detrimental to the group (cheap shots), group think, ostracized/deviant behavior, etc.
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What % of their time do you think managers stated on average they deal with conflict at work?
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20%
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Positive consequences of conflict:
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1) Leads to new ideas
2) Stimulates creativity 3) Motivates change 4) Promotes organizational vitality 5) Helps individuals & groups establish identities 6) Serves as a safety valve to indicate problems |
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Negative consequences of conflict:
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1) Diverts energy from work
2) Threatens psychological well-being 3) Wastes resources 4) Creates a negative climate 5) Breaks down group cohesion 6) Can increase hostility & aggressive behaviors |
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Structural causes of conflict in organizations?
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1) Authority
2) Equity issues 3) Jurisdictional ambiguities (we don't know who is supposed to make decisions) 4) Specialization (we all have our own specialty and we don't know what people do) 5) Interdependence--relying on someone to get something done 6) Common resources |
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Interpersonal causes of conflict in organizations?
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1) Personalities--time management
2) Communication issues 3) Goal differences 4) Values & ethics 5) Diversity--cultural differences 6) Perception |
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How to recognize an underlying conflict:
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1) Aggressive mechanisms: fixation, displacement, negativism
2) Compromise mechanisms: compensation, identification, rationalization 3) Withdrawal mechanisms: flight/withdrawal, conversion, fantasy |
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Fixation:
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not helping anyone, hitting your computer, losing course of action, what you do to deal with conflict, “hit head on the wall”
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Displacement:
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displace anger on to someone else
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Negativism:
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respond negatively to everything
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Compensation:
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divert all energy to another task
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Identification:
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mimic someone who is dealing with conflict well
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Rationalization:
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act out, and then rationalize it; accommodators do this- passive aggressive behavior
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Flight/Withdrawal:
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defense mechanism, physical, emotional, or cognitive withdrawal
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Conversion:
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convert stress into physical symptoms, lead to addiction, or ulcers, heart attack
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Fantasy:
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“attack your boss”- act out in your head
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Inappropriate ways to handle conflict?
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1) Character assassination--don’t talk bad about people
2) Non-action--people get really frustrated with you 3) Administrative orbiting-- pretend like we are solving the problem, go to some people and talk about it but you are really just buying time 4) Due process nonaction- process in place is so cumbersome that people just don’t use it and it doesn’t get resolved (EX: sexual harassment) |
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Effective ways to handle conflict?
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1) Confront and negotiate
2) Fire the person 3) Expand resources 4) Align goals (superordinate goal)--each have their own goals but join them into one superior goal so they can work together |
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Conflict management strategies:
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1) Avoiding
2) Accommodating 3) Compromising 4) Competing 5) Collaborating |
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Avoiding:
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1) Don’t address the conflict, I am not going to talk about it
2) Problems: frustrating for other person, build up frustration over time, decreases productivity 3) Use it: petty issue, when emotions are really intense |
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Accommodating:
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1) You do what they want you to do, I give into the other person
2) Problems: when two people are accommodating, can be seen as weak, walk all over you 3) Use it: when the issue is not as important to you, when relationship is more important than the issue!! |
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Competing:
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1) I always get what I want
2) Problems: very frustrating for people 3) Use it: when issue is really important and more important than relationship, when you know you are right |
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Compromising:
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1) Problem: both have to give up something
2) Use it: shows that you are really willing to work with the person |
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Collaborating:
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1) Win-win, best outcome
2) Problem: have to know exactly what other person wants, sometimes we are arguing what we don’t really want 3) Use it: not everything is a fixed pie |
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Common negotiation errors:
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1) Irrational escalation of commitment
2) Anchoring & adjusting 3) Belief in the mythical fixed-pie 4) Framing (neg. vs. pos.) 5) Winner's curse 6) Law of Small Numbers 7) Self-serving bias 8) Ignoring of others' cognitions 9) Reactive devaluation |
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Irrational escalation of commitment:
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When keep committing resources to a losing course of action
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Anchoring and adjusting:
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Initial value so important that it guides the rest of the discussion
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Belief in the mythical fixed-pie:
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Winner and loser go into situation thinking there is a win-win situation
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Framing:
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Positive framing the conflict is the most beneficial
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Winner’s Curse:
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If you are the one who is willing to pay the price, then you paid too much
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Law of Small Numbers:
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When we enter the conflict we have an idea of what is fair; so instead of coming up with a scientific number, I come up with a viewpoint that I based off of just a small amount of people
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Self-serving bias:
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Overestimate our own abilities in negotiation, and underestimate others
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Ignoring of Others’ Cognitions:
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Not paying attention to what other person wants; need to understand what they want
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Reactive devaluation:
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If someone makes a proposition then we immediately devalue it, “why are they offering it to me?”
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Distributive vs. integrative:
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1) Distributive: the pie is fixed
2) Integrative: when you can develop a win-win situation |
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Hardball tactics:
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1) Good cop/ bad cop: bad cop comes in and roughs him up and then you come in to try and get more information as good cop
2) Low ball/ high ball: severely underbid or overbid for something, can create negative feelings 3) Bogey- negotiating for multiple things; “fine if you wont pay my electricity bill, then let me have a dog”; you wanted the dog all along 4) The nibble- negotiating for a long time, throwing in the last thing and then I’ll do it; they are not likely to back out of the deal because you want one little thing 5) The Snow Job- throw so many things out there, that you don’t know what you are negotiating for 6) Intimidation- intimidate party into doing what you want 7) Chicken- two cars head to head and see who will swerve, have a lot to lose if you don’t agree with them |
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Negotiator’s dilemma:
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If you throw out a number that person may not negotiate with you, you have less room to negotiate (EX: job interview: how much do you not want to make? Don’t say what you want!)
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Preparing for negotiations:
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1) Do your h/w
2) Understand the importance of each issue 3) Assess the bargaining zone 4) Set goals--anchors & alternatives (BATNA) 5) Focus on long-term vs. short-term |
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Negotiation strategies:
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1) Build trust & share information
2) Ask lots of questions 3) Where possible, don't make the first offer 4) Give away some information to aid the other party's offer 5) Make multiple issue offers simultaneously 6) Search for post-settlement settlements 7) Search for a novel solution |
