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206 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Organization change
Any substantive modification to some part of the organization (EX: work schedules, machinery, employees).
Planned change
Change that is designed and implemented in an orderly and timely fashion in anticipation of future events (EX: Y2K).
Reactive change
A piecemeal response to circumstances as they develop (not anticipated).
Enterprise resource planning (ERP)
A large-scale information system for integrating and synchronizing the many activities in an extended enterprise.
Business process change (reengineering)
The radical redesign of all aspects of a business to achieve major improvements in cost, service, or time.
Organization development (OD)
An effort that is planned, organization-wide, and managed from the top, intended to increase organizational effectiveness and health through planned interventions in the organization's process, using behavioral science knowledge.
Innovation
The managed effort of an organization to develop new products or services or new uses for existing products or services.
Radical innovation
A new product, service, or technology that completely replaces an existing one (EX: iPod replaced CD player).
Incremental innovation
A new product, service, or technology that modifies an existing one (EX: iPhone bc cell phones already existed).
Technical innovation
A change in the appearance or performance of products or services, or of the physical processes through which a product or service passes.
Managerial innovation
A change in the management process by which products and services are conceived, built, and delivered to customers.
Product innovation
A change in the physical characteristics or performance of an existing product or service or the creation of new ones.
Process innovation
A change in the way a product or service is manufactured, created, or distributed (EX: assembly lines).
Intrapreneurs
Similar to entrepreneurs except that they develop new businesses in the context of a large organization.
Human resource management (HRM)
The set of organizational activities directed at attracting, developing, and maintaining an effective workforce (EX: recruitment, hiring, firing, training, and compensation).
Human capital
Reflects the organization's investment in attracting, retaining, and motivating an effective workforce.
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Forbids discrimination on the basis of sex, race, color, religion, or national origin in all areas of the employment relationship.
Adverse impact
When minority group members pass a selection standard at a rate less than 80 percent of the pass rate of majority group members.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
Charged with enforcing Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Age Discrimination in Employment Act
Outlaws discrimination against people older than forty years; passed in 1967, amended in 1978 and 1986.
Affirmative action
Intentionally seeking and hiring qualified or qualifiable employees from racial, sexual, and ethnic groups that are underrepresented in the organization.
Americans with Disabilities Act
Prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities.
Civil Rights Act of 1991
Amends the original Civil Rights Act, making it easier to bring discrimination lawsuits while also limiting punitive damages.
Fair Labor Standards Act
Sets a minimum wage and requires overtime pay for work in excess of 40 hours per week; passed in 1938 and amended frequently since then.
Equal Pay Act of 1963
Requires that men and women be paid the same amount for doing the same job.
Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA)
A law that sets standards for pension plan management and provides federal insurance if pension funds go bankrupt.
Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993
Requires employers to provide up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave for family and medical emergencies.
National Labor Relations Act
Passed in 1935 to set up procedures for employees to vote on whether to have a union; also known as the Wagner Act.
National Labor Relations Board (NLRB)
Established by the Wagner Act to enforce its provisions.
Labor-Management Relations Act
Passed in 1947 to limit union power; also known as the Taft-Hartley Act.
Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSHA)
Directly mandates the provision of safe working conditions.
Job analysis
A systematized procedure for collecting and recording information about jobs within an organization.
Replacement chart
Lists each important managerial position in the organization, who occupies it, how long he or she will probably remain in the position, and who is or will be a qualified replacement.
Employee information system (skills inventory)
Contains information on each employee's education, skills, experience, and career aspirations; usually computerized.
Recruiting
The process of attracting individuals to apply for jobs that are open.
Internal recruiting
Considering current employees as applicants for higher-level jobs in the organization (cheaper).
External recruiting
Getting people from outside the organization to apply for jobs (EX: advertising, campus interviews, employment agencies or executive search firms, union hiring halls, referrals by present employees, and hiring "walk-ins" or "gate-hires").
Realist job preview (RJP)
Provides the applicant with a real picture of what it would be like to perform the job that the organization is trying to fill.
Validation
Determining the extent to which a selection device is really predictive of future job performance.
Training
Teaching operational or technical employees how to do the job for which they were hired.
Development
Teaching managers and professionals the skills needed for both present and future jobs.
Performance appraisal
A formal assessment of how well an employee is doing his or her job.
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS)
A sophisticated rating method in which supervisors construct a rating scale associated with behavioral anchors.
360-degree feedback
A performance appraisal system in which managers are evaluated by everyone around them--their boss, their peers, and their subordinates.
Compensation
The financial renumeration given by the organization to its employees in exchange for their work.
Job evaluation
An attempt to assess the worth of each job relative to other jobs.
Benefits
Things of value other than compensation that an organization provides to its workers (EX: vacation, sick leave, insurance, social security, and pensions).
Diversity
A characteristic of a group or organization whose members differ from one another along one or more important dimensions, such as age, gender, or ethnicity.
Diversity and multicultural training
Training that is specifically designed to better enable members of an organization to function in a diverse and multicultural workforce.
Labor relations
The process of dealing with employees who are represented by a union.
Collective bargaining
The process of agreeing on a satisfactory labor contract between management and a union.
Grievance procedure
The means by which a labor contract is enforced.
Knowledge workers
Workers whose contributions to an organization are based on what they know.
Psychological contract
The overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return.
Contributions
What the individual provides to the organization.
Inducements
What the organization provides to the individual.
Person-job fit
The extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducements offered by the organization.
Individual differences
Personal attributes that vary from one person to another.
Personality/individual behavior
The relatively stable set of psychological and behavioral attributes that distinguish one person from another.
"Big Five" personality traits
A popular personality framework based on five key traits.
Agreeableness
In the "Big Five" model of personality, an individual's ability to get along with others.
Conscientiousness
The number of goals on which a person focuses.
Negative emotionality
Extent to which a person is poised, calm, resilient, and secure.
Extraversion
A person's comfort level with relationships.
Openness
A person's rigidity of beliefs and range of interests.
Locus of control
The degree to which an individual believes that his or her behavior has a direct impact on the consequences of that behavior.
Self-efficacy
An individual's beliefs about her or his capabilities to perform a task.
Authoritarianism
The extent to which an individual believes that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems like organizations.
Machiavellianism
Behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of others.
Self-esteem
The extent to which a person believes that he or she is a worthwhile and deserving individual.
Risk propensity
The degree to which an individual is willing to take chances and make risky decisions; women & the elderly are more risk adverse.
Emotional intelligence (EQ)
The extent to which people are self-aware, manage their emotions, motivate themselves, express empathy for others, and possess social skills; like IQ, this is something you're born with.
Attitudes
Complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific ideas, situations, or other people.
Cognitive dissonance
Caused when an individual has conflicting attitudes (EX: "Stealing is wrong, but I d/l music illegally").
Job satisfaction or dissatisfaction
An attitude that reflects the extent to which an individual is gratified by or fulfilled in his or her work.

1) Job satisfaction is influenced by personal, group, and organizational factors.
2) Satisfied employees are absent from work less often, make positive contributions, and stay with the organization.
3) Dissatisfied employees are absent from work more often, may experience stress which disrupts coworkers, and are continually looking for another job.
4) High levels of job satisfaction do not necessarily lead to high job performance.
Organizational commitment
An attitude that reflects an individual's identification with and attachment to the organization itself.
Positive affectivity
A tendency to be relatively upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being, see things in a positive light, and seem to be in a good mood.
Negative affectivity
A tendency to be generally downbeat and pessimistic, see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood.
Perception
The set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information about the environment.
Selective perception
The process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs.
Stereotyping
The process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute.
Attribution
The process of observing behavior and attributing causes to it.
Stress
An individual's response to a strong stimulus, which is called a stressor; the experience of opportunities or threats that people perceive as important and also perceive they might not be able to handle or deal with effectively.
General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
General cycle of the stress process.
Type A
Individuals who are extremely competitive, very devoted to work, and have a strong sense of time urgency.
Type B
Individuals who are less competitive, less devoted to work, and have a weaker sense of time urgency.
Burnout
A feeling of exhaustion that may develop when someone experiences too much stress for an extended period of time.
Creativity
The ability of an individual to general new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives on existing ideas.
Workplace behavior
A pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness.
Performance behaviors
The total set of work-related behaviors that the organization expects the individual to display.
Absenteeism
When an individual does not show up for work.
Turnover
When people quit their jobs.
Organizational citizenship
The behavior of individuals that makes a positive overall contribution to the organization.
Dysfunctional behaviors
Those that detract from, rather than contribute to, organizational performance:

1) Absenteeism & turnover
2) Theft & sabotage
3) Sexual & racial harassment
4) Politicized behavior
5) Intentionally misleading others
6) Spreading malicious rumors
7) Workplace violence
Motivation
The set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways.
Content perspectives
Approach to motivation that tries to answer the question: What factor or factors motivate people?
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Suggests that people must satisfy five groups of needs in order--physiological (EX: food & base salary), security (EX: stability & pension plan), belongingness (EX: friendship & friends at work), esteem (EX: status & job title), and self-actualization (EX: achievement & challenging job).
Two-factor theory of motivation
Suggests that people's satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by two independent sets of factors--motivation factors and hygiene factors.
Need for achievement
The desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the past.
Need for affiliation
The desire for human companionship and acceptance.
Need for power
The desire to be influential in a group and to control one's environment.
Process perspectives
Approaches to motivation that focus on why people choose certain behavioral options to fulfill their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained these goals.
Expectancy theory
Suggests that motivation depends on two things--how much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it.
Effort-to-performance expectancy
The individual's perception of the probability that effort will lead to high performance.
Performance-to-outcome expectancy
The individual's perception that performance will lead to a specific outcome.
Outcomes
Consequences of behaviors in an organizational setting, usually rewards.
Valence
An index of how much an individual desires a particular outcome; the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.
Equity theory
Suggests that people are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they receive for performance.
Reinforcement theory
Approach to motivation that argues that behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated, whereas behavior that results in punishing consequences is less likely to be repeated.
Positive reinforcement
A method of strengthening behavior with rewards or positive outcomes after a desired behavior is performed.
Avoidance
Used to strengthen behavior by avoiding unpleasant consequences that would result if the behavior were not performed.
Punishment
Used to weaken undesired behaviors by using negative outcomes or unpleasant consequences when the behavior is performed.
Extinction
Used to weaken undesired behaviors by simply ignoring or not reinforcing them.
Fixed-interval schedule
Provides reinforcement at fixed intervals of time, such as regular weekly paychecks.
Variable-interval schedule
Provides reinforcement at varying intervals of time, such as occasional visits by the supervisor.
Fixed-ratio schedule
Provides reinforcement after a fixed number of behaviors regardless of the time interval involved, such as a bonus for every fifth sale.
Variable-ratio schedule
Provides reinforcement after varying numbers of behaviors are performed, such as the use of complements by a supervisor on an irregular basis.
Behavior modification (OB Mod)
Method for applying the basic elements of reinforcement theory in an organizational setting.
Empowerment
The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of responsibility and authority.
Participation
The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about their own work.
Compressed work schedule
Working a full 40-hour week in fewer than the traditional five days.
Flexible work schedules
Work schedules that allow employees to select, within broad parameters, the hours they work.
Job sharing
When two part-time employees share one full-time job.
Telecommuting
Allowing employees to spend part of their time working offsite, usually at home.
Reward system
The formal and informal mechanisms by which employee performance is defined, evaluated, and rewarded.
Merit pay
Pay awarded to employees on the basis of the relative value of their contributions to the organization.
Merit pay plan
Compensation plan that formally bases at least some meaningful portion of compensation on merit.
Piece-rate incentive plan
Reward system wherein the organization pays an employee a certain amount of money for every unit she or he produces.
Gainsharing programs
Designed to share the cost savings from productivity improvements with employees.
Scanlon plan
Similar to gainsharing, but the distribution of gains is tilted much more heavily toward employees.
Stock option plan
Established to give senior managers the option to buy company stock in the future at a predetermined fixed price.
Forces for change
1) External forces in the organization's general and task environments force the organization to alter the way in which it competes.
2) Internal forces inside the organization cause it to change its structure and strategy; some internal forces are responses to external pressures.
Steps in the change process:
1) Recognizing the need for change.
2) Setting goals for the change.
3) Diagnosing the situation to determine what brought on the need for change.
4) Selecting a change technique that will accomplish the intended goals.
5) Planning for the implementation.
6) Implementing the change.
7) Evaluating the results.
What is the cause of entropy?
Maintenance of the status quo which puts the organization out of sync with its environment and the organization starts consuming its own resources to survive.
Internal factors that limit change:
Investments, informational constraints, internal politics, histories--norms & routines
External factors that limit change:
Legal & fiscal barriers, external constraints on information, legitimacy constraints, etc.
Why do people resist change?
1) Uncertainty about the extent & effects of change.
2) Threats to self-interests, power, and influence.
3) Different perceptions of change effect outcomes.
4) Feelings of loss in disrupted social networks, power, security, and familiarity with existing products.
Overcoming resistance to change:
1) Encourage active participation in the change process.
2) Provide education & communication.
3) Facilitate the change process by making only necessary changes, announcing changes in advance, & allowing time to adopt.
The Reengineering Process:
1) Develop goals & a strategy for reengineering effort.
2) Emphasize top management's commitment to the reengineering effort.
3) Create a sense of urgency among members of the organization.
4) Start with a clean slate; in effect, re-create the organization.
5) Optimize top-down and bottom-up perspectives.
The Innovation Process:
1) Development: Organization evaluates, modifies, and improves on a creative idea.
2) Application: Organization uses developed idea in design, manufacturing, or delivery of new products, services, or processes.
3) Launch: Organization introduces new products or services to the marketplace.
4) Growth: Demand for new products or services grow.
5) Maturity: Most competing organizations have access to the idea.
6) Decline: Demand for an innovation decreases, and substitute innovations are developed and applied.
Reasons for failing to innovate:
1) Lack of resources
2) Failure to recognize opportunities
3) Resistance to change
Promoting innovations in organizations:
1) Using the reward system
2) Having a supportive organizational culture
3) Encouraging intrapreneurship in larger organizations: inventors, production champions, sponsors, etc.
What is not covered by Title VII?
Sexuality, disability, and age
Title VII only pertains to . . .
Companies with at least 15 employees that work 19 weeks/yr.
2 Types of Sexual Harassment:
1) Quid pro quo ("this for that")
2) Hostile environment (EX: crude jokes)
Human resource planning involves . . .
assessing trends, forecasting supply of and demand for labor, and then developing appropriate strategies for address any differences.
One disadvantage of internal recruiting:
Ripple effect--when an employee moves to a different job, someone else must be found to take his or her old job.
Selecting human resources:
Application blanks, tests, interviews, assessment centers, and other techniques (polygraph tests, physical exams, drug tests, credit checks, etc.).
During an interview, you cannot be asked . . .
About medical conditions, whether or not you're planning on having a family, religious affiliation, financials, national orientation, etc., but the information can be volunteered.
Why should employees' performance be regularly evaluated?
1) Performance appraisal may be necessary for validating selection devices or assessing the impact of training programs.
2) To provide feedback to employees to help them improve their present performance and plan future careers.
Two basic categories of appraisal methods:
1) Organizational (actual output, scrap rate, dollar volume of sales, and number of claims processed)
2) Judgmental/subjective
__________ methods, including ranking and rating techniques, are the most common way to measure performance.
Judgmental
Drawbacks of rankings:
1) Ranking is difficult for large groups, because the persons in the middle of the distribution may be hard to distinguish from one another accurately.
2) Comparisons of people in different work groups are also difficult.
3) Rankings do not provide useful information for feedback.
Errors in the appraisal process:
1) Recency error--going to remember most recent performance
2) Halo (horns) error--they're good at everything bc they're good at one thing & vice versa
3) Biases, stereotyping (EX: family conflict)
Performance feedback is usually done . . .
in a private meeting between the person being evaluated and his or her boss. The discussion should generally be focused on the facts--the assessed level of performance, how and why that assessment was made, and how it can be improved in the future.
Wages
The hourly compensation paid to operating employees.
Salary
Compensation paid for total contributions, as opposed to pay based on hours worked.
Incentives
Special compensation opportunities that are usually tied to performance (EX: sales commissions & bonuses).
How do you think a salary is set?
1) Look at the market
2) Length of time (seniority)
3) Qualifications
4) What the position's bringing to the company (costs shouldn't exceed benefit)
How can diversity be a competitive advantage?
1) Organization that manage diversity effectively often have higher levels of productivity and lower levels of turnover and absenteeism.
2) Organization that manage diversity effectively become known among women and minorities as good places to work. These organizations are thus better able to attract qualified employees from among these groups.
3) Organizations with a diverse workforce are also better able to understand different market segments than are less diverse organizations.
4) Organizations with diverse workforces are generally more creative and innovative than other organizations.
How can diversity create conflict?
1) An individual thinks that someone else has been hired, promoted, or fired because of her or his diversity status.
2) Diversity is misunderstood, misinterpreted, or leads to inappropriate interactions among people of different groups.
3) There is an environment of fear, distrust, or individual prejudice.
4) People are unwilling to accept people different from themselves.
The Union-Organizing Process:
1) Generate interest in union among employees.
2) Collect signed authorization cards.
3) Petition NLRB to hold election.
4) Secret ballot election is held.
5) Union signs up members and elects officers.
6) Collective bargaining over first labor contract.
7) Labor contract signed.
8) Grievance procedure used to resolve disputes during the life of the contract.
Why are unions set up?
1) To bargain collectively with employer
2) Dealing with management collectively
Temporary Work
1) Anything less than FT work (PT employees, on-call workers, temp. agencies, independent contractors, etc.)
2) Sometimes costs more per hour but you don't need to have employees paid for FT work
3) Saves on benefits
4) Involves careful planning!
Performance appraisals are important for:
1) Validating selection devices
2) Assessing the impact of training programs
3) Deciding pay raises and promotions
4) Determining training needs
Individual contributions to the organization:
1) Effort
2) Ability
3) Loyalty
4) Skills
5) Time
6) Competencies
Organizational inducements to the individual:
1) Pay
2) Job security
3) Career opportunities
4) Status
5) Promotion opportunities
The "Big Five" Personality Traits:
1) Agreeableness
2) Conscientiousness
3) Negative emotionality
4) Extraversion
5) Openness
Myers-Briggs Framework
1) Extraversion (E) versus Introversion
2) Sensing (S) versus Intuition (N)
3) Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F)
4) Judging (J) versus Perceiving (P)
T/F: In terms of personality attributes, questions exist about both the validity and the reliability of the MBTI.
TRUE
Other ways to measure personality?
1) Observable behavior
2) Interviews
3) Experiments
4) Projective tests (EX: ink blot)
Components of attitudes (ABC Model):
1) Affective component reflects the feelings and emotions an individual has toward a situation.
2) Cognitive component is derived from perceived knowledge.
3) Behavioral Intentional component is how a person expects to behave in a given situation.
Ways to resolve cognitive dissonance:
1) Change attitude
2) Change behavior
3) Justify behavior
Employees with a high level of commitment:
1) Regard themselves as true members of the organization
2) Overlook minor sources of dissatisfaction
3) See themselves as remaining a member of the organization
Employees with less organizational commitment:
1) See themselves as outsiders
2) Express more dissatisfaction about things
3) Do not see themselves as long-term members of the organization
3 dimensions of job satisfaction:
1) Affective (I like it)--want to encourage bc work harder & won't leave
2) Continuance (No other viable option)
3) Normative (guilt)

Developed w/in 1st yr & doesn't really change
T/F: Mood and emotions are synonymous.
FALSE; Emotions = specific cause & shorter duration.
Fundamental attribution error
We blame others' behavior due to internal factors
Self-serving bias
When something good happens, internal; when something bad happens, external
Internal attribution
Assign the cause of behavior to some characteristics of the person: ability, personality, motivation, etc.
External attribution
Assigns the cause of behavior to factors external to the process: task difficulty, luck, etc.
The basic framework around which we form attributions is:
1) Consensus (the extent to which other ppl in the same situation behave the same way)
2) Consistency (the extent to which the same person behaves in the same way at different times)
3) Distinctiveness (the extent to which the same person behaves in the same way in other situations)
Causes of work stress:
1) Task demands: quick decisions, incomplete information for decisions, critical decisions
2) Physical demands: temperature extremes, poorly designed office, threats to health
3) Role demands: role conflict, role ambiguity
4) Interpersonal demands: group pressure, leadership styles, conflicting personalities
Primary prevention
Time management, remove yourself, practice, etc.
Secondary prevention
Work out, breathing exercises, massages, etc.
Tertiary prevention
Seek help, support groups, etc.
T/F: You can change your personality type.
FALSE; You can control your personality type. For example: Type As should have more fun & hangout w/ more Type Bs.
Negative personal consequences of stress:
1) Behavioral--smoking, alcoholism, overeating, drug abuse
2) Psychological--sleep disturbances, depression
3) Medical--heart disease, stroke, backaches, ulcers, skin conditions, cancer
Negative work-related consequences of stress:
1) Poor quality work output & lower productivity
2) Faulty decisions & disrupted relationships
3) Withdrawal through indifference and absenteeism
4) Irritation and difficulty in getting along
5) Job dissatisfaction, low morale, and a lack of commitment
6) Health implications
Organizational citizenship
Behavior that makes a positive overall contribution to the organization.
Herzberg's two-factor theory
Job satisfaction has two dimensions: satisfaction & dissatisfaction; satisfaction is achieved by motivation factors & dissatisfaction is avoided by the presence of adequate hygiene factors.
Motivation factors:
1) Achievement
2) Recognition
3) The work itself
4) Responsibility
5) Advancement and growth
Hygiene factors:
1) Supervisors
2) Working conditions
3) Interpersonal relations
4) Pay & security
5) Company policies and administration
Criticism of two-factory theory:
Pay is on both sides.
Individual human needs:
1) Need for achievement
2) Need for affiliation
3) Need for power

4) Need for affiliation
Types of equity:
1) Negative equity (EX: I get paid more for less work)
2) Positive equity (EX: I get paid more for less work)
Entitled:
"I deserve positive equity."
Benevolent:
"It is what it is."
Equity sensitive:
"Everything should be equitable."
Two possible outcomes of inequity:
1) Underrewarded (try to reduce inequity)--decrease inputs by exerting less effort, increase outcomes by asking for a raise, distort the original ratios by rationalizing, try to get the other person to change outcomes or inputs, leave the situation, or change the object of comparison
2) Overrewarded (somewhat motivated to reduce)--increase inputs by exerting more effort, reduce outcomes by producing fewer units, distort the original ratios by rationalizing, or try to reduce the inputs or increase the outcomes of the other person.
Alternative work arrangements:
1) Variable work schedules: flex time, compressed week
2) Job sharing
3) Telecommuting
Advantages of alternative work arrangements:
1) More productive
2) More time for kids/family
3) No traffic
4) Not geographically limited
5) Motivating
Disadvantages of alternative work arrangements:
1) Harder to communicate
2) Harder to coordinate
3) Less productive (at home)
4) Cost savings at work bc not paying for electricity
Purpose of goal setting:
To increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the individual, group and organization.
Goals. . .
1) Guide and direct behavior.
2) Provide challenges and standards.
3) Serve as a source of legitimacy.
4) Define the rational for org. structure.
5) Reflect what the goal setters consider important.
Effectiveness of reinforcement schedules:
1) Variable-interval/Variable-ratio
2) Fixed-ratio
3) Fixed-interval