Mex-Am Final

Front 1

Mexico de Afuera

Back 1

During the 1930s, many people forcibly repatriated. This was helped by the fact that many Mexicans really felt like they were part of Mexico de Afuera, felt a desire to return. There was also a low rate of naturalization because of this.

Front 2

Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)

Back 2

In the 1930s, actions taken against the International Workers of the World (IWW): had a well-known radical agenda. 1917, launched strikes against the copper industry in Arizona and Sonora, including in Bisbee.

Front 3

Bisbee, Arizona

Back 3

Bisbee Deportation: Movement of 12,000 strikers out of Arizona and deported to Mexico. Part of the growing power of the government to move people around.

Front 4

Border Patrol

Back 4

The INS was a branch of the department of labor at this time. Because of this the border patrol began to work to ensure that Americans received jobs

Front 5

American Federation of Labor

Back 5

AFL begins leading the call for the deportation of Mexicans

Front 6

William Doak

Back 6

Appointed by Hoover as the secretary of labor, used immigration services to make raids and identify people eligible for deportation. The removal of illegal aliens, it was believed, would reduce welfare costs and free up jobs. This movement was taken up local communities. In the 1930s, William Doak, decides to monitor strikes in places like rural California and identify strike leaders and deport them

Front 7

Denver, San Antonio, Los Angeles, Gary, Chicago, and Detroit

Back 7

Organized repatriation campaigns in these cities.

Front 8

National Catholic Welfare Conference

Back 8

Did a study showing that deportation caused many families to go on welfare

Front 9

President Lázaro Cárdenas

Back 9

Played a role in these deportations. During the 1930s President Cardenas employs colonization schemes in Northwestern Mexico—colonies of repatriates. In many cases Mexican consulates in American cities the Mexican officials actually urged Mexicans to get on these trains

Front 10

Class structure

Back 10

During the 1930s the vast majority of Mexican-Americans are extremely economically depressed and disenfranchised. Because so many of these Mexican-Americans had recently arrived, they were very vulnerable. Majority of people were working class: domestic, construction, agricultural workers

Front 11

Los Ricos

Back 11

Small group of elites in these communities: “los ricos.” Most of them came from Mexico with money. Exiles from the Mexican Revolution. In San Antonio there were 100 families that were part of “los ricos” (this is out of 82,000 Mexican-Americans)

Front 12

Middle Class

Back 12

Also an emerging middle class: merchants, store owners, lawyers, doctors
o The middle class is growing increasingly self-aware and proud of its place in the midst of the large lower classes of Mexicans
o They feel set apart from the lower classes—proud of their bilingual abilities and call themselves tejanos
o American-born people of Mexican descent
o More involved in American pop culture
o Group of people coming into its own for the first time in the borderlands
o Prefer modern American culture to Mexican traditional culture
o Distrustful of Mexican immigrant organizations like mutual aid organizations

Front 13

Sons of America, Sons of Texas, Knights of America

Back 13

During the 1920s and 30s middle class Mexican-Americans begin forming organizations. Had disdain for traditional Mexican immigrant orgs like mutualistas. Late 1920s—Texas sees an explosion of these types of organizations (esp. in southern Texas): The Sons of America, Sons of Texas, Knights of America. Demonstrate the boldness of the forging of this new image. The members of these groups came together to form a new group. In 1929 came together in Corpus Cristi, TX The League of Latin American Citizens (LULAC)

Front 14

LULAC

Back 14

• Groups like Sons of America decided they needed an umbrella organization
• At the founding convention described their purpose: see the handout
• LULAC would become the leading civil rights organization for Mexican Americans in Texas in the 1930s and 40s
• Promote the advancement of Mexican Americans
• Argue that Mexican Americans are just like Euro-Americans, no different from common America
• Think of their organization as primarily an American, not a Mexican organization
• Begin all their meetings with the prayer written by George Washington
• Official language of the organization was English and that was the only language permitted in the meetings
• Mexican citizens were barred from the organization, increasingly took on segregation in Texas
• Argues against segregation by saying it is “un-American”
• Emphasize middle class uplift

Front 15

Corpus Cristi

Back 15

Where LULAC was founded in 1929

Front 16

Middle class uplift

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Middle class sought to fix the damaging ways of the lower class—saw their behavior as being responsible for t he persistence of poverty

Front 17

El Cid, Bonaparte, Bolivar, etc.

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LULAC vehemently stressed that they were Latin Americans, part of a glorious tradition of others who were Latin

Front 18

Census Bureau

Back 18

For the first time Mexicans were classified as a separate race, LULACers were devastated by this, opened up opportunity to be discriminated against. Successfully lobbied to get rid of this category, by 1940 it has been eliminated

Front 19

Dependicitis

Back 19

LULACers accuse lower class Mexican Americans of being dependent on welfare

Front 20

Wildcat Strikes

Back 20

• In the 1930s there is a greater pressure on the workforce, by the early 1930s workers begin banding together in Wildcat Strikes: labor actions that developed outside of the formal union. Immediate reactions that were meant to be a response to a local condition. For example, a strike on the occasion of the firing of a popular worker

Front 21

Mutualistas

Back 21

One of the 3 types of working class organizations that contributes to the politics and culture of this period. organizations of people who come from a common place or have something in common, sometimes groups of kin who come together in a support network. Sometimes these are people who came from the same region in Mexico. Often named after people like Benito Juarez and other national heroes. They charged low monthly dues and established a common bank account which people could access in times of need. Had a president, secretary, treasurer. Allowed people that could not access welfare and more official safety nets a form of security. These really take off in the 1930s.

Front 22

Confederacion de Uniones Obreros Mexicanos (CUOM)

Back 22

Labor Unions were another factor that contributed to this political climate. Many of the Mexican immigrants who come over in the 1920s have been influenced by the Mexican Revolution and bring with them radicalism. Most important: Confederación de Uniones Obreros Mexicanos (CUOM)
• Founded in 1927, had a very Mexican approach—Mexican nationalism was at the core of the meetings
• Organizational issues led to its decline in the early 1930s
• Revived in 1933 with the help of a union from Mexico, CROM, now called CUCOM

Front 23

Cannery and Agricultural Workers Industrial Union

Back 23

A left wing U.S. labor union. The third important factor. Founded by the communist party. During the 1930s the communist party was really the only ones actively organizing women and minorities. Dorothy Healey, organizer for the CAWIU and Jewish immigrant, worked a lot with Mexican community

Front 24

San Joaquin Valley in 1933

Back 24

• Huge wave of strikes, reflected the physical movement of Mexican workers
• Begin in Santa Clara and move south and throughout industries
• 37 strikes 75%-90% are Mexican descent, 29 of these strikes lead to some kind of victory
• Suggest a politics very different from LULACs—these strikes were animated in a certain sense by a pride in being Mexican. When they took over company towns they often renamed streets after Mexican towns or national heroes
• Strikers saw themselves as carrying forward the revolution
• When there was violent confrontation those who had fought in the Mexican revolution served as military guards
• Also involved both men and women—women of all ages took part, also took on leadership roles
• Strikers faced real violence: in October 1933 newspapers recounted the tear gassing and clubbing of strikers. Local sheriffs on the payroll of the farmers. Many Mexicans began to arm themselves.
• Federal government does step in: FDR offers federal arbitration, this leads to a wage increase

Front 25

Pecans

Back 25

• Growth in Mexican farm labor in the pecan industry—this is very labor instensive work that could not be mechanized. Pecan industry based in San Antonio
• Involved about 15,000 workers by the early 1930s, mostly women
• Wages were extremely low and the working conditions were extremely dangerous—workplaces were shacks with no ventilation and no restroom
• In 1934 begin to organize, LULAC and the AFL is un-interested in organizing the pecan shellers

Front 26

Magdaleno Rodriguez

Back 26

First action involved 5,000 primarly female workers—led by a man, Magdaleno Rodriguez, also argued against the deportation of Mexicans also against the politics of LULAC. 1934-5, achieved a labor settlement with a small wage raise. This stage of organizing was run very much from the top. There was a two-year hiatus after the departure of Rodriguez

Front 27

Emma Tenayuca

Back 27

Emma Tenayuca—restarts the movement. Member of the communist party and received considerable support from the communist party. Met a lot of opposition in San Antonio—opposed by LULAC, the Catholic Church, and Mexican-American business owners. The Jewish community supported the strikers.

Front 28

Police Chief Owen Kilday

Back 28

Police Chief Owen Kilday—arrested more than 1,000 pecan workers and ordered the striker be tear gassed.

Front 29

LULAC and the Mendez case

Back 29

In the 1940s and 50s LULAC begins to tackle discrimination. o Launches an important anti-discrimination case in Orange County, CA. Gonzalo Mendez and Felicitas Mendez try to enroll their child in a school, where Gonzalo himself had attended school. The school district had been redrawn, however, to exclude Mexican-Americans. Their child was sent to an exclusively Latino school. The Mendezes joined LULAC to sue 4 school districts, sued for the unlawful segregation of 4,000 Mexican students. This case, brought in 1944, went to state and federal courts. Superintendents used stereotypes to explain why they had to be removed—dirty, stupid, and unable to speak English. The lawyers for the plaintiffs brought in social scientists to dismiss these claims. Also used the fourteenth amendment. Took a year in state court, finally ruled there was no justification for segregation of Mexican students. The school districts filed appeals. In 1947 the 9th district court (federal) upheld the state’s ruling

Front 30

Little school of the 400

Back 30

LULAC established The Little Schools of the 400, active principally in the early 1960s. Brought in young children, Spanish speaking. Goal was to teach students 400 english words before they entered public school. Taught 92,000 students. Taught by LULAC volunteers

Front 31

American G.I. Forum

Back 31

veterans. Still active. Founded by a medical doctor and army veteran, Hector B. Garcia. Established in 1949. Took on discrimination. Did this most immediately in response to discrimination in small town of Three Rivers, CA. Found out that Felix Langoria, who had died fighting in Italy had been denied burial in the town. American GI Forum protested, this was a catalizing moment for what would become one of the dominant civil rights orgs. For Mexican Americans. Like LULAC they focused on their service as Americans.

Front 32

Hector B. Garcia

Back 32

Founder of the American G.I. Forum

Front 33

Three Rivers, TX

Back 33

The American G.I. Forum was founded in reaction to an act of discrimination that occurred here with a soldier that had died named Felix Langoria.

Front 34

Felix Langoria

Back 34

A soldier who who had died fighting in Italy during WWII and had been denied burial in the town because he was Mexican. Led to the formation of the American G.I. Forum

Front 35

Braceros

Back 35

Work program from 1945-62 that brought Mexicans across the border to work menial jobs.

Front 36

Undocumented immigrants

Back 36

During this time there was also a sharp rise in the number of undocumented immigrants. For the first time Mexican immigrants are aggressively labeled as wetbacks.

Front 37

Pot and syphilis

Back 37

Attention drawn to Mexicans as a criminal presence. Portrayed as drug runners. Thought to be spreading the use of marijuana. People are concerned more and more about rebellion in youth culture which is often tied to the use of drugs which is tied to Mexicans. Also thought to spread STDs. Concern about syphilis.

Front 38

United Farm Workers

Back 38

An important factor in the rise of the Chicano movement, along with the Vietnam war, is this new labor organization. o Was active in California, Texas, Washington, Orgeon, Colorado
o Is based in California, in the San Joaquin Valley
o Founded in the 1960s. Grew of a group called the Community Service Organization that had been founded in 1947 and dedicated to voter registration and neighborhood improvement. Grew out of a desire by Mexican-Americans in LA to elect a Mexican city council member
o Aim of CSO was to use the power of Mexican-Americans as voters
o Ended up establishing branches throughout California
o In the context of Operation Wetback and concern over illegal immigrants, the CSO urged immigrants to naturalize and gave classes
o Registered an enormous number of people to vote and helped 25,000 undocumented immigrants gain citizenship
o Often these non-citizens were the relatives (parents, grandparents) of citizens. So people in the CSO wer
• UFW was founded by 2 CSO organizers: Cesar Chavez was a CSO organizer for 10 years beginning in 1952 Dolores Huerta was from Huerca, CA and had been involved with the CSO since 1955
o Desire to take on labor issues in agriculture
o To take on the greatest holders of power in California—agriculture industry

Front 39

Cesar Chavez

Back 39

One of the 2 CSO organizers who founded UFW. Had been a CSO organizer for 10 years.

Front 40

Dolores Huerta

Back 40

One of 2 CSO organizers who founded the UFW. Had been involved with the CSO for 7 years.

Front 41

Delano grape strike ("la huelga")

Back 41

UFW organized from 1962-65, and launched a grape strike in 1965 in Californias central valley. This strike known as “La Huelga” It was actually started by Phillipino workers and an organization called AWOC in September of 1965.

Front 42

AWOC

Back 42

Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee. The Phillipino workers organization that started the grape strike in 1965, Chavez quickly joined with them creating a multi-ethnic movement.

Front 43

La Alianza Federal de Pueblos Libres

Back 43

Founded in 1962 by a minister named Reies Lopez Tijerina. Founded to try to call attention to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and why the land grants had not been enforced.

Front 44

Reis Lopez Tijerina

Back 44

o Tijerina was a poor, uneducated man, a former migrant laborer, a Pentecostal man, a minister
o In 1960 Tijerina claims to have gotten a sign from God that he must do something about the land-owning situation in New Mexican towns
o In 1960 Tijerina travels to Mexico City to research the history of land grants in New Mexico and the history of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
o After a year he returns to New Mexico to found La Alianza
o Set his sights on not only land owners but also on the U.S. Forest Service, which had taken over large tracts of land in New Mexico in the late 19th, early 20th century
Tijerina travels around New Mexico and acquires quite a large following. Was influenced by the Watts riots and black power. In the mid-1960s decides to move away from the "slow approach" and towards a more militant way of getting things done. Starts saying that white people should be expelled from New Mexico.

Front 45

U.S. Forest Service

Back 45

Had taken over large tracts of land in New Mexico in the late 19th, early 20th century. Tijerina sets his sights on them because he felt they had taken the land of native New Mexicans that had been guaranteed to them by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

Front 46

Fidel Castro

Back 46

Tijerina said that Fidel Castro ought to be the hero of Mexican-Americans “he put the gringos off his island, and we ought to do the same”

Front 47

Republic of San Joaquin

Back 47

1966: Tijerina declares that a certain part of northern New Mexico were no longer part of the United States and was a new country, the Republic of San Joaquin. They would stop cars coming into the region and hand visas to tourists. This is theater, meant to bring attention to the lack of power held by Mexican-Americans. This kind of movement would never have been possible 10 years earlier

Front 48

Tierra Amarilla Court House

Back 48

In the summer of 1967 (June 5) La Alianza takes another turn with the courthouse raid, Tijerina attempts to make a citizens arrest of the attorney general in Tierra Amarillo, who had been hounding members of La Alianza. The AG rejects acceptance of this arrest and a confrontation occurs in which 2 deputy sheriffs are shot and wounded by members of La Alianza. Members of La Alianza flee and hide in local forests
o Early June 1967 looks like the beginning of a dangerous political situation for New Mexico
o The governor calls the national guard and tanks and military helicopters are brought in. 2,000 national guardsmen are searching for members of La Alianza
o Ultimately, Tijerina and his men surrender
o Tijerina was acquitted but in many ways this courthouse raid began to bring La Alianza’s success to an end, looked upon as a radical
o 1969 Tijerina is arrested for occupying a national forest and sent to jail for 2 years and eliminates La Alianza as apolitical force
o La Alianza succeeds in sparking the imagination of many young people who for the first time are questioning the promises of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
o By raising these questions Tijerina changes the way people thought about their history

Front 49

"Blow outs"

Back 49

March 1968, high school students walk out of schools “blew out” in Los Angeles to demand changes from the board of education
• What these students knew and wanted to publicize was the high dropout rate for Mexican-American students
• March 1968, they prompted similar blowouts in other parts of the country: Phoenix, Denver, Texas
• High rates of drop out have a lot to do with lack of attention
• Calls for a curriculum that is relevant to the needs of their community
• This kind of activism, that begins in the high schools, spreads to colleges

Front 50

United Mexican American Students

Back 50

Important Mexican students org that folds into Mecha

Front 51

Mecha

Back 51

1969: Mexican-American student groups from around California come together to form Mecha. These student groups reflect the concerns of self-determination and Chavez

Front 52

The Crusade for Justice

Back 52

Corky Gonzalez Began the Crusade for Justice that began with 30 families in Denver. It emphasized community organization against police brutality and segregation. Also begins advocating a cultural nationalism and brought Aztlan to the lexicon
• Corky contacted the UN to ask for a plebecite for whether the SW wanted to be a part of the U.S.

Front 53

Corky Gonzalez

Back 53

The key articulator of self-determination Corky Gonzalez, from Denver, important player in Democratic party politics. Led campaign to mobilize Mexican Americans to elect Kennedy. Called the “Viva Kennedy” campaign. Began the Crusade for Justice.

Front 54

"Viva Kenndy" campaigns

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Mexican Americans to elect Kennedy. Called the “Viva Kennedy” campaign

Front 55

Aztlán

Back 55

Mythical birthplace of the Aztec people. Used in the chicano movement for self-empowerment. Believed to be in the southwest.

Front 56

United Nations

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Corky contacted the UN to ask for a plebecite for whether the SW wanted to be a part of the U.S.

Front 57

Plan Espiritual de Aztlan

Back 57

• In 1969, culminated when 2,000 students organize the Plan Espiritual de Aztaln: looks back on history of “gringo invasion” of our territory. Says there should be no border between Mexico and the US, which has divided Mexicans. Appeals to an important minority of Mexicans, who feel incredibly empowered

Front 58

Ronald Regan

Back 58

The long 1980s are usually linked to Regan who not only reinforced the border but also served as governor of California from 1966-1980 and was a reactionary force to Chavez and the UFW

Front 59

Fernando Valenzuela

Back 59

Born in 1960 in Mexico. One of the most effective pitchers in MLB history. First rookie in MLB history to win the Cy Young award. “Fernando’s Fade-away”—best pitch of its kind since the 1920s. Grown up in central Mexico on a small farm, one of 12 children. Fernando’s ascendancy echoed the rise of Latinos as a cultural force in the late 20th century. Spanish language radio was taking over the airwaves in the 1980s. Also, Spanish language television. Became a hero in Mexican neighborhoods. Rose in the 1980s during a time in which new immigration was on the rise.

Front 60

Maquiladores

Back 60

The Border Industrialization Program provides for the building of maquiladores on the Mexican side of the of border. This allowed companies to take advantage of cheap Mexican labor and also not pay an excise tax

Front 61

Border Industrialization Program

Back 61

One of the things that accounted for the rise in immigration. This provided for the industrialization of the border and new factory jobs at the maquiladores. o This act creates rapid growth of maquiladores in places like Tijuana and Juarez. This creates massive immigration from central Mexico to the borderlands. These people then end up crossing the border

Front 62

La Decada Perdida

Back 62

The 1980s were times of huge economic depression in Mexico. There are huge debt problems and unemployment and poverty increase. This is almost as bad as the 1930s were in the United States.

Front 63

Migradólores

Back 63

More and more people during the 1980s are moving to the United States and sending money back home. This is increasingly happening from places like Nebraska, Iowa, New York, Connecticut.

Front 64

MALDEF

Back 64

Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund. founded in the late 1960s as an outgrowth of the activism of that era. By the 1980s they are a team of lawyers litigating on the behalf of Latinos. They lead the way in the fight against increased border control.

Front 65

Plyer v. Doe (1982)

Back 65

Argued successfully by MALDEF takes on an effort of Texas schools to deny illegal immigrant children to enroll undocumented children in schools. MALDEF argues to the Supreme Court that this is a denial of the 14th amendment and the equal protection clause. This expands the scope of the Equal Protection Clause. Also work on behalf of immigration reform.

Front 66

Immigration Reform and Control Act

Back 66

Last effort on the part of the federal gov to control immigration. Was an effort to discourage illegal immigrants. Also included an amnesty provision which allowed all undocumented immigrants who could prove they had been in the U.S. for a number of years then they could apply for naturalization. Several million do so. Provides an important turning point in the late 20th century. To discourage immigration it included an employee sanction provision which gave penalties to employers that hired undocumented residents. The idea was that if they could cut off the availability of jobs then we can eliminate the problem to excess undocumented immigration

Front 67

Farah Strike

Back 67

In the 1970s. Pants factory that was documented by Mexican American women. They win the strike but the union can’t protect the jobs so the factory moved to Mexico and everyone lost their jobs. Demonstrative of labor union's labor unions.

Front 68

"Save our State" Initiative

Back 68

Proposition 187, adopted in 1994, adopted by a majority of Californians. Denied illegal immigrants services that were tax-supported. This meant no public hospital services, children couldn’t enroll in pre-school or public universities, no welfare benefits. Second part: service providers (schools, welfare providers, etc.) are required to report anyone they expect to be illegal to the INS. Curtailed by the courts almost immediately through the work of MALDEF and others. This would have important civil rights repercussions despite this. Many would take law enforcement into their own hands.

Front 69

"California Civil Rights Initiative"

Back 69

Proposition 209. Wanted to do away with affirmative action in California. Ward Connerly was a council person in Sacramento behind this initiative. This dramatically changes the composition of California universities.

Front 70

Proposition 209

Back 70

The California Civil Rights Initiative

Front 71

Ward Connerly

Back 71

Sacramento council person behind the passage of Proposition 209

Front 72

Proposition 227

Back 72

Dismantled bilingual education in California. The argument was that Mexican children clung on to their language for too long.

Front 73

Immigration and Customs Enforcement Act Section 287g

Back 73

Allows ICE agents to work into cooperation with local law enforcement which allowed these local policemen and sheriffs with the ability to identify and detain people they suspect to be illegal immigrants. Happens in the aftermath of 2001.