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69 Cards in this Set
- Front
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Weber - Social Action Perspectives |
-Defines social action as any intentional, meaningful behaviour which takes account of the existence of other people -Defines sociology as the study of social action & believed that to explain social action you must understand what actions mean to people -Weber saw modern society as increasing governed by rational social action, whereas premodern societies were regulated more by traditional social action. -He distinguished various types of social action Instrumental rational action - where we assess goals and how to achieve them Value rational action - where we don't abandon goals even if we don't achieve them e.g celibacy Traditional action - e.g celebrating christmas Affective action - where we act out of emotion |
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Weber SA Criticisms |
-The different types of actions are confusing as we may follow a combination of actions at one time -Postmodernists deny that the contemporary social world is increasing characterised by rationalism However, Ritzer (1996) supports Weber's view that capitalist societies drive towards bureaucratic organisation and rationalism in the pursuit of profit. |
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Mead - Symbolic Interactionism |
-Founder of SI, finding that human behaviour is social because people interact in terms of symbols. Symbols stand for other objects and imply certain behaviour. E.g the symbol 'chair' implies an object that you can sit on. - Meanings and symbols are largely shared by members of society - In order to understand the behaviour of others, it is necessary to take the role of the other. - Individuals have a self: a image of what sort of person they are. By taking the role of others, we build up a self-concept. - Society has a culture and a plurality of social roles. E.g role of husband and wife. These roles imply certain behaviour,but the roles are flexible and can change. |
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Blumer - Symbolic Interactionism |
- Developed Mead's approach. - Emphasises that people do not react automatically to external stimuli but interpret the meaning before reacting - Meanings develop during interaction and are not fixed - Rules and structures restrict social action and shape the interpretation of meaning to some extent, but they are never absolutely rigid and fixed. |
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Criticisms SI |
- Interactionists fail to explain where the norms which partly shape out behaviour come from -They may underestimate the degree to which human behaviour is constrained. - They neglect the role of structural factors (e.g class inequality) in shaping human societies. |
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Ethnomethodoloy |
- We interpret the world in a way which is meaningful to us - This is a collective process - we have shared concepts, e.g of what a democracy is or a golf ball is. GARFINKEL showed that there are methods used by social actors which show our understanding is 'socially constructed'. - People use the 'documentary method' - they take aspects of a situation from many which could have been selected and use them as evidence of an underlying pattern - Our understanding is based on context. We assume there are underlying rules but you behave in unexpected ways. - In society, the individual is not passive simply following the norms of society but an individual constantly engaged in interpreting situations. - We assume there are patterns but ethnomethodology states that this is a 'mutually enforcing fiction' - all just social construction. |
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Criticisms Ethnomethodology |
- How can we find out anything about the unknowable social world if we can only look into certain contexts? |
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Structuralism |
- Structuralists like De Saussure in his study of language shared that structuralism began as a study of language - There are diachronic (we study what people read and write) and synchronic (we only study this because of grammar) - The element of action (diachronic) depends on the elements of structure (synchronic). Thus, the structural elements of human activity are characteristics of structuralism. - Levi Strauss - When we study myths they seem different in the diachronic sense but viewed synchronically, they have common features. - When the structure is revealed, we can see the function of myths. - In society - we can see that the structure is most key according to Levi - Strauss as it is then possible to explore different patterns |
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Structuralism Criticisms |
- By interpreting an action through a system of rules, we may lose the uniqueness of the human action - by seeking underlying patterns - If we explain things in terms of structure, how can changes in structure be explained? |
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Structuration Theory |
Giddens (1979) - Sees structure as two sides of the same coin: structure makes social action possible, but social actions create the structure. Giddens calls this the duality of structure. - This may be illustrated considering language. Grammar is a structure of language, but individuals create the structure by talking and writing in ways that follow grammatical rules. If people start to use language in different ways, then grammatical rules will change. -The same with societal structures and institutions - they are reproduced through peoples actions, but if their actions change the structure and institutions change. |
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Giddens Criticisms |
- Archer (1982) argues that he puts too much emphasis on people's ability to change society by acting differently, and he underestimates the constrains under which people operate.
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Positivism |
- Believed it was possibly to apply logic and methods of the nature science to the study of society - it would bring true objective knowledge to solve social problems and achieve progress - Reality exists outside of the human mind - Nature is made up of objective, observable, physical facts which are external to our minds and exist whether we like it or not. - Society is an objective factual reality - its a 'real thing' made up of social facts that exist 'out there' indepen |
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Positivists Keyword |
Reality is not random but patterned; 'real laws are discoverable' that will explain these patterns - sociologists can discover laws that determine how society works |
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Empirical Patterns keyword |
Factual patterns seen through observation |
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Inductive Reasoning |
Accumulating data about the world through careful observation/measurement. |
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Verification |
When many observations have confirmed/verified our theory, we can claim to have discovered the truth in the form of a general law |
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Objective quantitative research |
Quantitative data to uncover and measure patterns of behaviour. Be detached and objective and not allow their subjective feelings, values and prejudices influence how they conduct their research or analyse their findings. |
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Interpretivists |
Internal meanings, not external causes |
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Verstehen |
Empathetic understanding to grasp their meanings |
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Qualitative research |
Participant observation, unstructured interviews and personal documents. These methods produce richer, more personal data high in validity and give the sociologist a subject understanding of the actor's meanings and life world. |
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Value-free sociology |
- Favoured my Positivist sociologists - Who claim that if sociology wants to be a science, it must be free from your personal values and objective. - In order to obtain value-free results, Positivists refer to statistics obtained from surveys or official publications methods that obtain a perfect reflection of the subject under study.
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Committed sociology |
- Must try to improve the condition of those most oppressed in society - Tool which helps bring about social change, not just an academic subject - Should have some explicit values which should guide the approach to study - Advocates of this view are Feminist and Marxist sociologists |
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Sociology is value-laden |
- Research is financed by groups who have a reason why they want it done - Government departments have to sign an agreement to say it will not prevent publication should it not like the findings - Researchers benefit financially from certain outcomes and lose out if other outcomes are uncovered - Sociologists have careers - they want to publish, get promoted. - It is impossible to escape our own values, if we find certain areas interesting |
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Functionalist Theory (3) |
- In the 20th Century Functionalism was the dominant perspective - Views society as a system with interconnected parts - Social institutions exist to meet the basic needs of society e.g families provide primarily socialisation which meets the basic need of common culture - Institutions are studied by identified by the ways they contribute to meeting needs |
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Durkheim Functionalist Theory (5 Points, 2 Criticisms) |
- Argued that people were constrained by social facts: ways of acting, thinking and feelings in a society. - Shared moral codes shape individual consciousness e.g don't lie, don't take drugs. TOO DETERMINISTIC, IT IGNORES THE FACT THAT INDIVIDUALS HAVE CHOICES ABOUT HOW THEY BEHAVE. - Social facts were caused by other social facts e.g Durkheim found that religion had an influence on suicide rates - Societies need a collective conscience, or shared morality, in order to function successfully CONSERVATIVE IDEOLOGY - WHICH AIMS TO PRESERVE THE STATUS QUO BY CLAIMING EVERYTHING HAS A USEFUL FUNCTION - Modern Industrial societies could be disrupted by the existence of anomie and egoism, where individuals are not integrated into social groups. |
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Parsons Functionalist Theory (5 Points, 5 Criticisms) |
- All societies need value consensus based on shared goals. ASSUMES VALUE CONSENSUS EXITS BUT PROVIDES NO EVIDENCE - Societies developed rules based upon this value consensus and norms about how people should behave, which fitted in with these overall goals. - When individuals are socialised to accept the values, goals and norms, this is when society works smoothly and social equilibrium is achieved. GOULDNER (1975) ARGUES THAT FUNCTIONALISM IGNORES THE EXTENT TO WHICH PEOPLE ARE COOERCED IN SOCIETY AND DO THINGS THEY DO NOT WISH TO DO. - Four basic needs in society: Adaptation = the need for an economic system to ensure the survival of members of society Goal attainment = the need to set goals, a function primarily set by the government Integration = the need to control conflict, a function carried out by the legal system Pattern maintenance = the need for values, taught by education, family and education. SOME ASPECTS OF SOCIETY MAY BE DYSFUNCTIONAL BUT FUNCTIONALISTS PAY LITTLE ATTENTION TO THIS. LOCKWOOD (1970) FUNCTIONALISM IGNORES CONFLICT AND INTERESTS WITHIN GROUPS THAT DESTABILISE SOCIETY. - Social change occurs due to change/shift in values NOT USEFUL IN UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY AS IT DOES NOT PROVIDE AN EXPLANATION FOR THE STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY, E.G OPPRESSION |
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Merton (4 Points, 1 Comment) |
- Accepted that societies did not always work smoothly. - Parts of society could be dysfunctional and might prevent society from working smoothly - Crime and deviance could result from anomie - a situation where people put too much emphasis on goals and not enough on legitimate means - Believed that institutions in society worked as independent units, meaning that they may not work together for the benefit of the whole. Instead, some parts operate individually. TURNER AND MARYANSKI (1979) argue that functionalism remains useful for understanding social structures and their influence on behaviour but it is flawed. |
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Marxism (2) |
- Based upon a philosophy of dialectical materialism, the idea that history proceeds through the clash of material forces, particular classes - Marx saw human society as having a material base, based on work and the production of goods |
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Marxism P1 History (7 points, 4 Criticisms) |
- In earlier stages of history, under primitive communism, there was no economic surplus and no private wealth, so classes did not exist. - As individuals began to accumulate wealth (e.g herbs of animals_ and passed it down to their children, classes emerged. POPPER CLAIMED MARXISM IS UNSCIENTIFIC IN ITS METHODOLOGY. IT IS NOT A THEORY THAT CAN BE TESTED AND FALSIFIED. POPPER CLASSIFIES MARXISM AS A "FAITH". - Those who owned means of production (the ruling class) began to hold power and dominate the subject-class majority. This caused tension and opportunity for conflict. EXAGGERATES THE IMPORTANCE OF ECONOMIC FACTORS, CONFLICT AND DOMINATION ALSO OCCURS BETWEEN DIFFERENT RACES, SEXES ETC. - The ruling class used their control over institutions (e.g religion) to justify their position and persuade the subject class that they were not being exploited. PORTS THE SUBJECT CLASS AS PASSIVE AND NAIVE - Humans become alienated from their true self and interests. - Religion= form of alienation as it is has created an alien in their mind and this controls their behaviour. - Workers were alienated from their work because they worked for other people and lacked control over their work and did not own the products they produced. ECONOMIC DETERMINISM - SEES INDIVIDUALS AS DETERMINED BY THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM AND NEGLECTS THE EXTENT THAT INDIVIDUALS HAVE FREE CHOICES. |
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Marxism P2 Today (3 points, 2 criticisms) |
- All societies apart from communist ones have two main classes. The ruling class (bourgeoisie) who own capital and the subject class (proletariat) who own labour power. WEBER ARGUED THERE WERE 4 MAIN CLASSES IN SOCIETY - PROPERTY OWNERS, PETTY BOURGEOISIE, PROFESSIONALS, WORKING CLASS - The bourgeoise use the superstructure (non-economic parts of society e.g religion, education) to stabilise society. GROMSCI (1971) SAW THE SUPERSTRUCTURE AS HAVING SOME INDEPENDENCE AWAY FROM THE RULING CLASS - They encourage the development of false class consciousness whereby people see society as fair and just. AS CAPITALISM HAS DEVELOPED, SOME CRITICS HAVE ARGUED THAT CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS HAS REDUCED RATHER THAN INCREASED.
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Marxism P4 Future (4 Points, 6 Criticisms) |
- Marx predicted that the proletariat would eventually become aware that they were being exploited and they would develop an awareness of their true class interests (class consciousness) - The proletariat would be increasing exploited and suffer from crises in the capitalist system, causing them to be aware of the inequality. EMPHASISES CLASS DIFFERENCES AND PAYS LITTLE ATTENTION TO GENDER ETHNICITY ETC. WHAT ABOUT PATRIARCHY? - They would organise themselves into trade unions, political parties and revolutionary movements, overthrow capitalism and establish a communist society. THIS STILL HASN'T HAPPENED - TRADE UNIONS HAVE LOST POWER. COMMUNIST SOCIETIES ESTABLISHED IN THE 20TH CENTURY DID NOT END EQUALITY OR EXPLOITATION AND TENDED TO BE UNPOPULAR AND RESTRICTED INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM. BY THE EARLY 1990S MOST COMMUNIST REGIMES COLLAPSED. - The only end to alienation and exploitation would be achieved in a communist society. There would be communal ownership over the means of production and therefore no classes or exploitation. DIVISIONS IN SOCIETY WOULD STILL OCCUR, I.E RACISM, PATRIARCHY. MORE TO CLASS THAN WEALTH, E.G WEBER DEFINES CLASS AS BASED ON POWER, WEALTH AND PRESTIGE. |
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Feminism (4) |
- Conflict theory which sees a conflict of interest between males and females as the most important type of conflict in society - Believe most or all existing and historical societies are patriarchal - Many feminists believe that mainstream sociology (what they call 'malestream' sociology) has a masculine bias - Although feminists broadly agree that society is patriarchal and 'malestream', there are a number of distinctive feminist perspectives. |
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Radical Feminists 5 POINTS, 3 CRITICISMS |
- Women are exploited by, and subservient to, men. - Society is patriarchal; men are the ruling class and women are the subject class. CRITICS SUCH AS ROWBOTHAM (1982) QUESTION THE USEFULNESS OF A VAGUE TERM LIKE PATRIARCHY. ROWBOTHAM ALSO DENIES THAT ALL MEN EXPLOIT ALL WOMEN. - Explain the inequality in various ways, some see biology as the cause, others see culture or male violence are more important. - Firestone (1972) the biological family results from women being burdened by pregnancy, childbirth, breastfeeding and menstruation. They become dependent on men and power psychology develops, which maintains female oppression. - Ortner (1974) female oppression is cultural. Women give birth and they are therefore defined as closer to nature than men, whilst men are seen as more cultural. Culture is seen as superior to nature. POSTMODERNISTS BELIEVE THAT GENDER INEQUALITIES ARE NO LONGER FIXED, INFLEXIBLE AND OPPRESSIVE - Millett (1970) several factors in maintaining female oppression - including biology (male strength and use of violence) education and economic inequalities, myth and religion. THIS SEEMS TO BE OUTDATED DUE TO THE FACT THAT WE SEEM TO LIVE IN A SECULAR SOCIETY AND IT IGNORES THE PROGRESS OF WOMEN. |
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MARXIST FEMINISTS (7 Points, 4 Criticisms) |
- Marxist and Socialist feminists see the capitalist system as the main source of women's oppression - They stress the importance of the exploitation of women as paid and unpaid women. POSTMODERNISTS SUCH AS BROOKS (1997) BELIEVE THAT MOST FEMINISTS FAIL TO ACKNOWLEDGE THE PROGRESS OF WOMEN - Put forward a number of explanations of how the oppression of women started: - Engels argued the monogamous family only developed once herding of animals replaced hunting and gathering. Men used monogamous marriage to control women's sexuality so that they could identify their own biological children and pass down their herds of cattle to them. NOT BASED ON EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE. -Ceontz & Henderson - men became dominant when wives began to live with husbands family - men gained control of women's labour and wealth Also explained how inequality is maintained: - Engels - men retain power because of access to work, particularly well- paid work. He expected inequality to reduce once women gained greater access to well paid employment. OUTDATED - IT MAY HAVE APPLIED BEFORE BUT NOT NOW - Benston (1972) women are used as a reserve army of labour, benefitting capitalism by keeping wages low. They are an easily exploited work force.WHAT ABOUT MIDDLE AND UPPER CLASS WOMEN? |
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Liberal Feminists (4 Points, 2 Criticisms) |
-Associated with campaigners for equal rights, who want reforms to improve women's position, rather than revolution - Attribute inequality to sexism, discrimination, sex- role stereotyping and socialisation. - Accept much more than other feminists that women have made considerable progress in gaining rights and improving their position in society. However, they believe there is still some way to go before equality is achieved. USEFUL - TAKE ACCOUNTS OF THE INCREASING OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN AND THE RISE IN AWARENESS OF INEQUALITY. - E.g Watter (1998) believes that continuing problems of inequality affect all women. Women still tend to suffer from problems such as low pay, dual burden of paid employment and domestic labour, lack of childcare, poverty, domestic and sexual violence. NOT USEFUL IN UNDERSTANDING THE CAUSE OF INEQUALITY
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Black Feminists (3 Points, 2 Comments)
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- Believe that racial/ethinic differences between women have been neglected by white feminists - Stress the particular deprived position of black women USEFUL - INSIGHT TO OTHER ISSUES RATHER THAN CLASS - Brewer (1993) argues that class, race and gender combine to create multiple sources of deprivation for black women. IGNORES PROGRESS TOWARDS EQUALITY IN TERMS OF CLASS, GENDER AND ETHNICITY |
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Postmodern Feminists (5 Points, 3 Criticisms) |
- Reject the idea that all women share the same interests and that their position can be explained in terms of a single theory WALBY (1992) POSTMODERN FEMINISTS LOSE SIGHT OF THE IMPORTANCE OF INEQUALITY AND THE DEGREE TO WHICH THE EXPERIENCE OF OPPRESSION AND INEQUALITY GIVES WOMEN SHARED INTERESTS. - Emphasises the differences between groups of women, e.g class, age, sexuality. JUST BECAUSE THERE ARE DIFFERENCES IT DOES NOT MEAN THAT WE CANNOT LOOK FOR A THEORY TO PORTRAY THE MAJORITY OF FEMALE INTERESTS - Reject idea of progress, seeing it as product of male rationality and the idea of a single path to female liberation. - Believe women's position can be improved by deconstructing male language and thinking - Attack the male way of thinking as women as the 'other'. POSTMODERN FEMINISTS TEND TO NEGLECT IMPORTANT AREAS SUCH AS THE MALE USE OF VIOLENCE TO ACCUMULATE POWER AND GENDER INEQUALITIES WITHIN WORK. |
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Value Free Sociology (6P, 2 criticisms)
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- Firstly, sociology aimed to be value-free focuses on discovering objective truth.
- Early sociologists like Durkheim thought that they could discover this and say with scientific certainty what was really the best for society. THIS FAILS TO RECOGNISE THE FREE WILL THAT EACH INDIVIDUAL HAS AND INSTEAD MAKES THE ASSUMPTION THAT WE ARE PREDETERMINED B SOCIAL FACTS. - Positivists believe that value-free sociology would portray a perfect reflection of the subject under study, claiming that the research must be well designed and there must be no attempt to alter the findings. WEBER MAKES A DISTINCTION BETWEEN VALUE JUDGEMENTS AND FACTS AND ARGUES THAT WE CANNOT DERIVE ONE FROM THE OTHER. E.G RESEARCH MAY SHOW THAT DIVORCEES ARE MORE LIKELY TO COMMIT SUICIDE BUT THIS DOES NOT LOGICALLY DEMONSTRATE THE TRUTH OF THE VALUE JUDGEMENT THAT WE SHOULD MAKE DIVORCE HARDER TO OBTAIN. INSTEAD, SOME MAY ARGUE THAT WE SHOULD MAKE IT HARDER TO GET MARRIED OR THAT PEOPLE HAVE A RIGHT TO COMMIT SUICIDE. THIS ARGUMENT SEEMS TO CRITICISE THE VIEW THAT VALUE-FREE SOCIOLOGY CAN DISCOVER OBJECTIVE TRUTHS AS IT IS EVIDENT THAT THE RESULTS CANNOT LOGICALLY BE CLASSED AS FACTUAL. -Strength = research methods which remove the risk of interviewer bias or the respondent attempting to act in a desirable light. -Limitation = May not show a true and accurate picture of society - On balance, it appears that sociological research should not be value free as it ignores the free will of individuals. |
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Value Laden Sociology (8)
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-Secondly, by contrast, sociology became value laden, some argue it lost it critical integrity as it stopped criticising the establishment and therefore instead it became a pawn for the powerful.
-For example, Research is financed by groups who have a reason why they want it done. Government departments have to sign an agreement to say it will not prevent publication should it not like the findings. - However, researchers benefit financially from certain outcomes and lose out if other outcomes are uncovered. - Moreover, sociologists have careers and they therefore want to publish and get promoted. - In contrast to this view, Focault argues that what is considered knowledge reflects the ability of more powerful groups to impose ideas on the rest of society - It may be argued that the only strengths of conducting value laden research is for the researchers, who earn money and get a higher status out of it. - this approach is limited as it may cause the findings to be influenced by the preferences of the government or businesses therefore causing it to lack validity. - However, if there is no funding research may not happen at all in area. Also it can lead to new areas to research which were previously uncovered. |
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Modern Committed Sociology (6, 1C)
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- modern committed sociology perhaps corrects this earlier mistake by spelling out values sociologists have and openly taking sides.
- Advocates of this view are Feminist and Marxist sociologists. Marxists argue that the role of sociology is to uncover the ways the ruling class control the mass population. They want to break down capitalism by exposing the truth of how it operates to benefit the few. - Feminist Spender (1985) wants to expose the workings of an oppressive society by exploring how males dominate society to free women from patriarchy. IF SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH INVOLVES VALUES, ARE THE RESULTS JUST A REFLECTION OF THEIR VALUES AND WHAT THEY SET OUT TO FIND, RATHER THAN A TRUE PICTURE OF SOCIETY? - Gouldner argues that value free sociology is impossible because values are bound to be reflected in their work and it's also undesirable as without values guiding research, sociologist are taking sides with the powerful against the less powerful - Interactionist Becker argues that values are always present in sociology and that Positivists have taken the side of the powerful and instead, we should see things from the viewpoint of the less powerful, i.e criminals. - Goulder criticises Becker's argument for always taking sides with the disadvantaged or negatively labelled. Goulder is a Marxist and argues that we should take sides of those fighting back, the political radicals who want to change society. |
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Positivist sociologists claim that... 3
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- sociology should be considered a natural science
- society is an objective factual reality, made up of 'social facts' that exist 'out there' independently of individuals - scientists an measure and record these factual patterns systematically. |
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Interpretivists argue that....2
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- sociology is about internal meanings, not external causes a
- not a science, as science only deals with laws of cause and effect and not human meanings. |
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It may be argued that the most significant argument is provided by Postmodernists...
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who argue that natural science is a meta-narrative that makes false claims about having the truth and therefore there is no object reality for society to study.
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Positivism 8P 4C
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1.Sociologists can discover laws that determine how society work.TOO DETERMINISTIC
2.It is possible to apply log and methods of the natural sciences to the study of society and claimed this would bring true and objective knowledge to solve social problems. ONE MAY COMMENT THAT IT SEEMS UNREALISTIC TO CLAIM THAT THE STUDY OF SCIENCE CAN BE APPLIED TO HUMAN BEINGS WITH FREE WILL AND BRING OUT 'OBJECTIVE' KNOWLEDGE. 3.Reality is not random but patterned and we can observe factual patterns, just as scientists measure and record patterns systematically. 4.Use quantitive data to uncover and measure patterns of behaviour so they can produce precise statements about the relationship between the facts they are investigating. IN OBTAINING QUANTITATIVE DATA, THE RESEARCHER MAY BE RESTRICTED IN THE AMOUNT OF DEPTH THEY CAN GO INTO, SO MAY NOT PORTRAY A TRUE AND ACCURATE PICTURE OF SOCIETY. 5.Researchers should be detached and objective and not allow their subjective feelings, values and prejudices influence how they conduct their research. 6.In natural sciences, the scientist's opinions make no differences to the outcome of research, for example water boils at 100 degrees Celcsius whether the scientist likes it or not. 7. By analysing data, positivists seek to discover the laws of cause and effect that determine behaviour. They use methods that allow maximum objectivity and these methods produce data that can be checked by other researchers repeating the research. ALTHOUGH THEY ARE RELIABLE, THE DATA MAY NOT BE CONSIDERED AS VALID. 8.To conclude, Positivists believe that sociologists seek and approach research in a scientific procedure therefore sociology should be considered a natural science. |
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Interpretivists 8P 2C
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1.reject the use of natural science methods and explanations as a model for sociology.
2.criticise positivist's scientific approach as inadequate or unsuited to the study of human beings. 3.Sociology studies people who have consciousness and construct their world by attaching meaning to it, therefore it is based on internal meanings and not external causes. 4.Unlike matter, people have free will and can exercise choices. 5.Interpretivist Mead argued that humans do not automatically respond to external stimuli but instead, they interpret the meaning of stimulus and then choose how to respond to it. NOT BASED ON EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE, WHILST THE PATTERNS THAT POSITIVISTS SPEAK OF ARE. 6.Interpretivists argue that to discover the meanings people give to actions, we need to see the world from their view point. This differs from Positivism and the natural sciences who claim that the researcher should be detached and objective. USEFUL - DEPTH, NOT DISCOVERABLE THROUGH QUANTITATIVE DATA 7.We must put ourselves in the place of the actor, using what Weber calls vertehen/empathetic understanding to grasp their meanings. 8.favour qualitative methods as they produce richer, more personal data that is higher in validity and give the sociologist a subjective understanding of the actor's meanings and life world. |
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Durkheim vs. Douglas 11 1C
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1.Durkheim (1897) chose to study suicide to show that sociology was a science with its own distinctive subject matter.
2.Using quantitative data from official statistics, Durkheim observed that there were patterns in the suicide rate. 3. Protestants had a higher suicide rate than Catholics and these patterns were social facts. 4. They must therefore be caused by other social facts, which act on members of society to determine their behaviour. 5. Durkheim argued that the social facts responsible for determining the suicide rate were the levels of integration and regulation; Catholics were less likely than Protestants to commit suicide because Catholicism were more successful in integrating individuals. IT COULD BE A VARIETY OF FACTORS, THAT IS A JUDGEMENT AND NOT OBJECTIVE. 6. He claimed to have discovered a 'real law' through the use of social facts 7.In contrast to this view, interactionist Douglas (1967) claimed that individuals have free will and choose how to act, therefore rejecting the positivist idea of social facts determining our behaviour. 8.He claimed that we should uncover its meanings for those involved, instead of imposing our own meanings, such as Durkheim's types of suicide. Douglas proposes we use qualitative data from case studies of suicides as we can reveal the actor's meanings. 9.Similarly, the ethnomethodologist Atkinson (1978) rejects the idea that external social facts can determine behaviour and agrees that statistics are socially constructed. 10.Whilst Durkheim takes the positivist view that Sociology should be considered a science and illustrates this through his study on suicides, it is evident that Douglas and Atkinson disagree and claim that there are subjective meanings for each individual. 11.On balance, it may be suggested that Durkheim's claim to discovering a 'real law' fails to consider the various other factors that impact an individuals decision to commit suicide therefore it is a weaker argument. |
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Alternative Views - Postmodernists/ Poststructural Feminists 3P
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- Postmodernists argue that natural science is a meta-narrative and that scientific sociology makes false claims about having the full truth.
- strong argument and mirrors the conclusion made regarding Durkheim's study on suicide. - Poststructural feminists claim that science should not be a model for science. The quest for a single scientific feminist theory is a form of domination since they cannot capture the reality of women's experience. This seems to mirror the postmodernist view that scientific sociology makes false claims about having discovered 'real laws'. |
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Science Conclusion 2
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- Sociology should not model itself on the natural sciences as humans are not like 'puppets on a string' as Interpretivists argue and in fact, they have autonomy.
- Both postmodernists and poststructural feminists support this argument claiming the scientific sociology theories make false claims and do not uncover the truth. |
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Define Social Policy |
Social policy is the actions, plans and programmes of government bodies and agencies aim to deal with aproblem or achieve a goal.e.g preventing crime and reducing poverty. Policies are often based on laws thatprovide the framework within which these agencies operate. |
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Social Policy 1) Giddens (2001) stated that there were four practical benefits to studying society. (7, 1C) |
• Understanding social situations: - Help us understand the world around us. ONE MAY COMMENT THAT THE KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING GAINED FROM SOCIOLOGY MAY BE BOTH SUBJECTIVE AND LIMITED. E.G MANY PEOPLE MAY DISAGREE WITH MARXISM AND ITS STRIVE FOR COMMUNISM. - In regards to poverty, politicians believed that had eradicated poverty by the late 1960s - Welfare state had existed for 20 years , guaranteed minimum income, housing and free healthcare. -However, Townsend (1979) and Mack and Lansley (1985) showed that poverty remained a hidden problem in Britain with 11 million in poverty. -Women and childcare emerged the poorest so policies should try to target these groups. -Sociologists uncovered the extent of poverty and devising ways to measure it using a 'relative deprivation' model of poverty. -Led to policies such as the minimum wage and the 'New Deal' which introduced training programmes to get people back intro work. |
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Social Policy 2) Giddens (2001) stated that there were four practical benefits to studying society. (5) |
- Inform policymakers of perspectives that are different from their own, such as the awareness of cultural differences, from this discrimination can be combatted. - Helps people to see others' viewpoints, avoiding prejudice and discrimination - As a result, governments have tackled discrimination in areas of disability and race. - Sociological studies have highlighted the economic exclusion suffered by disabled people which has led to groups like the Disability Alliance to demand better treatment and the 1996 Disability Discrimination Act. - Sociology contributed to growth of understanding about different cultures and problems faced by ethnic minorities in Britain. |
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Social Policy 3) Giddens (2001) stated that there were four practical benefits to studying society. (2) |
Assessment of the effects of policies: - One example of this is where the cost effective benefits of health care in the NHS have been introduced; they wanted to find out how effective medical procedures were in terms of quality of life for patients an the cost to the NHS. - The National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) started in 1999 dictates which drugs and procedures the NHS were prepared to provide. |
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Social Policy 4) Giddens (2001) stated that there were four practical benefits to studying society. (3) |
Increase in self-knowledge: -Certain groups have benefitted from this, those with disabilities, ethnic minorities and the feminist and gay movements -Sociology has demonstrated the degree of discrimination and this knowledge has empowered them as they are then able to demand action and anti discrimination laws. - To a greater extent a benefit of sociology may be that it assesses the effects of policies and this opens up opportunities to change flawed social policies. In addition to this, sociology is also beneficial as it can identify social problems and draw attention to them. |
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Secondly, one may ask whether sociology effectively lead to social policy? (11) |
- Sociology has affected social policy in a number of areas: - Feminists campaigns have led to changes in education to prevent bias against girls and have led to offences such as domestic violence being taken more seriously - The right realistic perspective on crime of James Q Wilson (1975) has led to some new policies, such as the introduction of ASBOs aimed at preventing areas from deteriorating due to antisocial behaviour. - Sociologists continue to suggest social policies which highlight their intention and belief that the point of sociology is to make a difference and improve the social world. - Left Realists such as Lea and Young (1993) argue that people who suffer from crime are the poor so governments should introduce policies to prevent crime by tackling the marginalization of the young males who commit crime. - Liberal feminist sociologists have argued that society discriminates against women in terms of employment, state benefits and within the family, whilst radical feminists argue that our patriarchal society is actually based on exploitation and it should be dismantled. -In contrast to this view, Postmodernists such as Bauman (1990) argue that sociology has no contribution to make policy as there is no orderly manageable society 'out there' that we can manipulate. We can only seem some understanding of our personal lives. - Additionally, many sociologists do not believe that the government simply consults sociology by accepting the findings and using it to devise the best social policies. - Governments are only likely to take note of research which supports their existing policies and is likely to win votes. -On balance, the weight of the evidence insists that sociology may lead to social policy, however, it is unlikely to have a direct influence on social policy where sociologists are strongly opposed opposed to the policy of a particular government. Furthermore, to some extent governments influence sociological research by deciding on priorities for research funding. |
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Finally, to delve more deeply, it may be argued that Marxist conclusions regarding social policy are most accurate as inequality still remains in society and social policy has not targeted it effectively. (8, 3C) |
- Argue that the State represents the ruling class and its policies serve the interests of capitalism -they give ideological legitimation to mask capitalist exploitation - The NHS keeps workers fit enough to work. ECONOMIC DETERMINISM - They prevent revolution when class conflict intensifies and threatens the stability of capitalism. - There are always periodic crises of profitability, leading to cuts in state spending on welfare. - Sociologists should criticise capitalist social policy. SOCIAL DEMOCRATS ARGUE THAT RESEARCH CAN HELP BRING ABOUT PROGRESSIVE POLICIES WITHIN THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM - In contrast, New Right argue that the state should have minimal involvement in society as people should have the freedom to make their own choices and take responsibility - Murray (1984) argues that benefits are perverse incentives which weaken the family's self reliance and encourage a dependency culture, an underclass of lone mothers, undisciplined children and irresponsible fathers.ALTHOUGH THE QUALITY AND OBJECTIVITY OF NEW RIGHT RESEARCH HAS BEEN CRITICISED, E.G MURRAY'S LINK BETWEEN ABSENT FATHERS AND DELINQUENCY HAS BEEN WIDELY CHALLENGED - Social policies should restore individual's responsibility for their own welfare |
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Modernity |
- Modernism refers to the 17th century to the 20th century. - Modern theories argue that the objective truth about society can be discovered through rational, scientific thought. - Max, Weber and Durkheim see the development of modernity as progress. - The Enlightenment is often seen as the starting point of modernity; it rejected the limits of religious beliefs and argued that humans could work out the best way to organise society for themselves. |
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Postmodernity |
- Postmodern theories argue against the idea of objective truth. - They argue that we are in a postmodern time - a fragmented, discontinuous world with no neat classification. - It rejects the idea that human society can be perfected through rational thought or that grand theories can discover truth. - They believe that the desire for order has led people to impose a framework which ignores things that don't fit neatly into the classifications constructed. |
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High Modernity |
One may argue that the most influential concept in understanding society today is found in modernity as we are not in an era of postmodernity, but we are in an extension and development of a key feature of modernity (Giddens). |
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Modernism P1. (6, 2C) |
- It was a time dominated by rational, scientific thought shown through the search to understand how the physical and social world function. - Sociology was a product of modernity. Durkheim believed that rational, scientific study of sociology would provide an understanding of its mechanisms. TOO DETERMINISTIC - IGNORES INDIVIDUAL FREE WILL. ALSO DUE TO THE FREE WILL OF INDIVIDUALS YOU CANNOT MAKE CLAIMS ABOUT THE WHOLE OF SOCIETY. - Positivistic Sociology claims that society exists 'out there' and influences our lives. - There are social facts (ways of thinking, feeling and behaving) which can be studied. E.g Durkheim and Suicide - Sociology uses the methodological tools in sciences, for example, theories can be constructed which are true for all societies and this knowledge will improve societies by solving problems. - Marxism emerged in the period of modernity; Marx claimed to uncover an explanation for the functioning of society based on scientific research. A new form of society could therefore be constructed which would eliminate all social problems. MODERNITY NO LONGER HAS AN INFLUENCE ON SOCIOLOGIST UNDERSTANDING OF TODAY AS SOCIOLOGY HAS PREVIOUSLY FAILED TO IMPROVE SOCIETY E.B MARXISM LED TO TYRANNY IN THE COMMUNIST USSR AND THIS HAS CAUSED PEOPLE TO NO LONGER BELIEVE IN A SIMPLE RECIPE FOR PROGRESS. |
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Postmodernism P2. (12, 5C) |
- the picture of society drawn by modernity is no more true than that painted by religions that dominated thought processes before modernity. -three main arguments, beginning with anti-foundationalism which claims the search for indisputable knowledge has been a failure -there is no general criteria which enables us to distinguish truth from falsity. We must accept that different communities will have different criteria's to distinguish truth and falsity. THIS DOES NOT MEAN WE SHOULD ABANDON THE SEARCH FOR GENERAL THEORIES WHICH SEEK TO EXPLAIN DIFFERENCES - We are subject to language and other sign systems and can't step inside them to see what they really mean. There is nothing to guarantee what is true or what things mean. THIS DOES NOT MEAN THERE IS NO GENERAL CRITERIA OF TRUTH AND THERE IS NOT A CONNECTION BETWEEN SIGN SYSTEMS AND THE WORLD - Lyotard highlights that the postmodern culture started in the 1950s and it involves a transition in language games. - pre-industrial societies had language games based on narrative, denotative language games became dominant with the Enlightenment. - this is when statements are judged in terms of abstract standards of proof, deriving from science. -science itself is based upon metanarratives and postmodernism leads to 'incredulity towards metanarratives' LYOTARD'S THEORY ITSELF IS A SWEEPING METANARRATIVE - In postmodernism, denotative languages are replaced by technical language games and these are judged by the standards of usefulness. PHILO AND MILLER (2001) ARGUES POSTMODERNIST EMPHASIS ON LANGUAGE DISTRACTS ATTENTION FROM REAL SOCIAL PROBLEMS. - second main argument, anti-totalisation - claims it is etremely arrogant for us to put forward general theories which pretend to reveal the truth or meanings of things. - we need to abandon attempts to produce theories that seek to explain the structure and dynamics of society CONTRADICTING, POSTMODERNISTS INCLUDING LYOTARD ALSO SEEM TO PROVIDE US WITH ATTEMPTS TO EXPLAIN THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF SOCIETY - third main argument is anti-utopianism - knowledge has no produced a portrait of society but has been used to impose one truth and one meaning on others - it has no provided us with the power to do things that we could not otherwise do but it has allowed some groups to exert power over others. |
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Alternative view is provided by Anthony Giddens who believes that societies have entered an era of high modernity. (5, 1C) |
- despite important changes, such as globalisation, the key features of modern societies still remain -societies are still based upon the modern characteristic of reflexivity - this involves people reflecting upon the world and thinking about acting differently in order to improve things in the future. - people increasingly reflect upon all aspects of their lives and consider changing them THIS APPEARS EVIDENT IN TODAY'S SOCIETY AS PEOPLE STILL AIM TO IMPROVE AND UNDERSTAND THEIR EXPERIENCES, RATHER THAN DISMISS THEM. - Giddens argues that this is not a feature of postmodernity but an extension and development of a key feature of modernity. - On balance, may be argued that most sociological studies aim to improve and explain peoples lives, therefore high modernity is the most influential in sociologists understanding of society, however, people also do doubt metanarratives as postmodernism highlights. |
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Weber SOCIAL ACTION (11, 3C) |
- Described sociology as the study of social action - Defined social action as any intentional, meaningful behaviour which takes account of the existence of other people - Explaining social action requires Verstehen, or understanding. One needs to understand what actions mean to people. WE CANNOT ACTUALLY BE THAT PERSON OR COMPLETELY SURE THAT WE HAVE UNDERSTOOD THEIR MOTIVE - He argued that adequate sociological explanation involves two levels. The level of cause = explaining the objective structural factors that shape people's behaviour. - The level of meaning = understanding the subjective meanings that individuals attach to their actions. E.g his study 'The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism' - At the level of structural cause, the Protestant Reformation introduced a new belief system, Calvinism. They changed people's worldview which led to changes in their behaviour. E.g they promoted a work ethic which brought about the rise of capitalism. Subjective meaning = work took on a religious meaning for the Calvinist, as a calling by God to glorify his name through their labours. This motivated them to work systematically. - Weber attempted to classify actions into four types, based on their meaning for the actor - Instrumentally rational action - where the actor calculates the most efficient means of achieving a given goal. E.g a capitalist may calculate the best way to maximise profit is to pay low wages. It is about whether the goal itself is desirable. IT is simply about the most efficient way of reaching goal, whatever it is. - Value - rational action = Action towards a goal that the actor regards as desirable for its own sake. E.g worshiping God to get to heaven - Traditional action - customary, routine or habitual actions. Weber does not see this as ration because there's no conscious thought in it. - Affectual action - action that expresses emotion e.g weeping out of grief. DIFFICULT TO APPLY WEBER'S TYPOLOGY OF ACTION. YOU MAY FOLLOW A COMBINATION OF THESE ACTIONS AT A TIME - Weber saw the social world as increasing governed by rational social action (the process of rationalization) POSTMODERNISTS DENY THIS |
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MEAD (founder of symbolic interactionism) 11, 3C |
- Human behaviour is social because people interact in terms of symbols USEFUL BECAUSE IT OVERCOMES TO DETERMINISM OF STRUCTURAL THEORIES WHICH PORTRAY US AS COMPLETELY PASSIVE TO SOCIAL FORCES -Symbols stand for other objects and imply certain behaviour e.g the symbol 'chair' implies an object you can sit on - Humans do not have instincts and therefore need symbols in order to survive and interact - Meanings and symbols are largely shared by members of society NOT ALL ACTION IS MEANINGFUL AND INTERACTIONISM FAILS TO EXPLAIN ACTIONS WITHOUT MEANINGS - MAY ACT OUT OF HABIT -Individuals have a self: an image of what sort of person they are -This largely reflects how people react to them -By taking the role of the other we build up a self concept E.g we come to see ourselves as brave or a coward - Society has a culture and a plurality of social roles e.g roles of husband and wife NEGLECTS THE ROLE OF STRUCTURAL FACTORS E.G INEQUALITY - These roles imply certain behaviour but they are flexible and can change |
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Blumer (developed Meads approach) 3,1C |
- Emphasises that people do not react automatically to external stimuli but interprets the meanings before reacting - Meanings develop due to interact and are not fixed. - Rules and structures restrict social action and shape the interpretation of meaning to some extent but they are never absolutely rigid and fixed UNDERESTIMATES THE DEGREE TO WHICH BEHAVIOUR IS CONSTRAINED |
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LABELLING THEORY (symbolic interactionism essay) 5, 2C |
- The best-known application of interactionist ideas is that of the labelling theory -Three key concepts that underpin labelling theory - the definition of the situation, the look glass self and career - The definition of the situation = a definition of something is a label for that thing. Thomas (1966) argued that if people define a situation as real, then it will have real consequences. If we believe something to be true, then this belief will affect how we act and may have conseqences for those involved. E.g if a teacher labels pupil 'troublesome', she may act differently to him e.g punishing them more harshly. DETERMINISM- SEES OUR ACTIONS AND IDENTITIES AS SHAPED BY THE WAYS OTHERS LABEL THEM - The looking glass self - Cooley (1922) uses this idea to distinguish how we develop our self-concept (our idea of who we are) He argues our self concept arises out of the ability to take the role of the other. We come to see ourselves as they see us. Through this process, a self-fulfilling prophecy develops. - Career - Labelling theorists such as Becker and Lemert have extended the concept of 'career' to apply to groups e.g medical students, marijuana users etc. We can see the effects of labelling and stages it takes. Each stage has its own status and consequences. This leads to us creating a 'master status' just as a real career may give us status SOME PEOPLE MAY REJECT LABELS |
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Goffman's dramaturgical model (7, 2C) |
- A contrasting view to the labelling theory is by Goffman who describes how we actively construct our 'self' by manipulating other people's impression of us. - Our aim is to carry off a convincing performance of the role we have adopted INTERACTIONS ARE OFTEN IMPROVISED AND UNREHEARSED - Two key dramaturgical concepts are the presentation of self and impression management. - As social actors we have many techniques for impression management. We may use language, tone of voice, gestures, facial expressions. FAILS TO EXPLAIN THE UNDERLYING PROCESSES AND MOTIVATIONS THAT CAN BE INVOLVED IN COMMUNICATING WITH OTHERS - By using these techniques we can 'pass' for the person we want our audience to believe we are. - There is a 'gap' or role distance between our real self and our roles - Roles are only loosely scripted by society and we have a good deal of freedom in how we play them |
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PHENOMENOLOGY 8,1C |
- Is a philosophy developed by Husserl who argues that the world only makes sense because we impose meaning and order on it by constructing mental categories that we use to classify and 'file' information coming from our senses. - We can only obtain knowledge about the world through our mental acts of categorising and giving meaning to our experiences - the world is a product of our mind - Schutz applies this to the social world. The categories and concepts we use are not unique to ourselves, we share them with other members of society. - Schutz calls these shared categories 'typifications'. They enable us to organise our experiences into a shared world of meaning, - The meaning of any given experience is not given by the action in itself, but by its context. This means meanings are potentially unclear and unstable - especially if others classify the action in a different way from oneself. E.g putting your hand up at an auction and in classroom has different meanings. - Typifications stabilise and classify meanings by ensuring that we are all agreeing on the same meaning of things. - The social world is a shared, intersubjective world that can only exist when we share the same meanings. - However, we are inclined to adopt the 'natural attitude' and falsely believe that the world is a solid, natural thing. BERGER AND LUCKMANN REJECT HIS VIEW THAT SOCIETY IS MERELY AN INTER-SUBJECTIVE REALITY. ALTHOUGH REALITY IS SOCIAL CONSTRUCTED, ONCE IT HAS BEEN CONSTRUCTED, IT TAKES A LIFE OF ITS OWN AND BECOMES AN EXTERNAL REALITY THAT REACTS BACK ON US. E.G RELIGIOUS IDEAS MIGHT START OFF IN OUR CONSCIOUSNESS, BUT THEY BECOME EMBODIED IN POWERFUL STRUCTURES SUCH AS CHURCHES, WHICH THEN CONSTRAIN US - INFLUENCE LAWS. |
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NEED TO DO ETHNOMETHODOLOGY |
NEED TO DO ETHNOMETHODOLOGY |
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NEED TO DO STRUCTURAL ACTION |
NEED TO DO STRUCTURAL ACTION |
