Method

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scientific method

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a method of procedure where the problem is identified, data is gathered, hypothesis is formed and the hypothesis is empirically tested

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empirical approach

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information gained by experience, observation or experiment

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parisomy

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preference to most simple explanation

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testability

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the assumption that the explanations ofbehavior can be tested and falsified through observation. Being able to proveyourself wrong

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basic research

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a type of research conducted with the goal of understandingfundamental processes of phenomena

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applied research

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type of research conducted with the goal of solving every day problems

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external validity

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the degree to which you can apply your findings to the outside world/population

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ethnocentrism

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thinking your culture is best

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independent variable

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a factor the researcher believes to affect the observed behavior

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hypothesis

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a proposed explanation based on limited evidence

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descriptive or correlational hypothesis

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a prediction that your experimentalmanipulation will have an affect on the variables. Compares the means of groups

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structure of an empirical journal article

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has an introduction, lit review, why it's important, how it addresses current issues, hypothesis, method, results, participants

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construct

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concept or trait that is not tangible, like an emotion

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theory

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explanation of behavior to be tested

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casual inference

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drawing a conclusion of possible outcomes

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operational definition

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Researchprocedure that results in measurement of the concept. description of how you defined the behavior. used to define something (variable) in terms of a process (set of validation tests) needed to determine its existence

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psuedoscience

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posing as science but can't be tested

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external validity

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the degree to which you can apply your findings back to the population

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internal validity

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the degree to which a study provides casual information about behavior

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reliability

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consistency over time; the extent to which a measure is free of error

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operational defintion

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the definition of an abstract concept used by the researcher to measure/manipulate the concept in a study

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inter-rater reliability

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the measure of the degree to which different observers rate behaviors in similiar ways

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naturalistic observation

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a type of observation done in a natural setting or the person's typical environment

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quantitative data

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numerical data

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qualitative data

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non-numerical participant responses/data

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variable

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a behavior, situation or characteristic that differs from between people

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research design

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the overall strategy you use to integrate the different components of the study in a logical way. examples include a case study, a correlational/descriptive study, quasi-experiment.

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correlational research

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research method that allows you to examine the relationship between two variables

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predictor variable

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also known as the independent variable; does not change based on something else

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outcome variable

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also known as the dependent variable; what is being measured in the experiment

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correlation coefficient

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measures the strength between two variables for example, the pearson r coefficient

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experimental research

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research where the scenario is contrived and highly controlled

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quasi-experiment

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a type of research design where a comparison is made but the groups aren't randomly assigned

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treatment group

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the individuals in an experiment that receive a treatment

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control group

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subjects in an experiment that don't receive the treatment

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random assignment

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randomly assigned indivduals

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pre-test/post-test design

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allows you to assess the DV level or score before the IV is introduced

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time sampling

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type of sampling that occurs at set, systematic times

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event sampling

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type of sampling that is used when a behavior or event actually happens

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situation sampling

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type of sampling that happens at different locations/circumstances

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observation with intervention

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type of observation that allows you to intervene while observing

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observation without intervention

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type of observation in a natural setting that examines relationships between variables

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structured observation

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type of observation used when the event isn't likely to occur. for example, change blindness and the guy asking for directions/switching the painting

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qualitative types of measurement

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types of measurement that include narratives, video recordings, etc.

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quantitative types of measurement

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types of measurement that include a frequency checklist or rating scale. numerical

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measurement scales

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four levels of measurement that are expressed differently numerically

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the four measurement scales

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nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio

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likert scale

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scale of responses that measure a participant's agreement or disagreement with different types of statements. for example, 1 = strongly disagree

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rating scale

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type of interval scale that allows people to express feelings. for example, attractiveness on a 10-point scale

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semantic differential

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a rating scale that identifies the connotative meaning of objects/words/concepts. can measure an individual's unique, perceived meaning of something

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reactivity

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this happens when participants know they are being observed and change their behavior

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demand characteristics

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this happens when participants try to figure out what is being asked of them

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observer bias

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type of bias that researchers may bring to their work

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construct validity

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the extent to which a measured variable actually measures the concept it's designed to measure

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content validity

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to what degree the measure covers the entire domain of the construct

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face validity

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the degree to which it appears to be valid

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internal validity

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the degree to which a study provides a good test of the hypothesis

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field experiment

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type of experiment that is in the natural setting but is manipulated. for example, re-arranging toys in a classroom

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internal consistent (alpha)

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items in the measure that are internally correlated/consistent with how the group would score them; items in a scale consistent with each other

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probability sampling

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a type of sample where individuals have a specific probability of being chosen

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sample

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a group of people chosen from the population to be in a study

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sampling bias

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type of bias caused by choosing non-random data for analysis so that members of the intended population are less likely to be included

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simple random sampling

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each person has an equal chance of being selected in this type of sample

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stratified sampling

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type of sampling where the proportion of a group in the sample is equal to the proportion of that group in a population

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systematic random sampling

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type of sampling where members are chosen from the larger population according to a random start point and a fixed interval

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haphazard/convenience sampling

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sample chosen from the population where they are chosen. example, sign up sheets

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social desirability

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a bias where the group presents itself in the best light so they change their answers unintentionally

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debriefing

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participants are told the purpose of the study and its benefits

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informed consent

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telling participants about the study and getting their approval to participate

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IRB

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oversees the research conducted to make sure it's ethical

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confidentiality

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keeping participant's information private

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risk to benefit ratio

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weighing the risks to the benefits to make sure the benefits outweigh the risks

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mean

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average

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measures of central tendency

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mean, median, mode

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descriptive stats

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measures of central tendency and dispersion

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median

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midpoint of scores

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mode

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most common response, most frequent

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normal distribution

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measures of central tendency are all the same and look like the bell curve

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range

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highest score - lowest score

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variance

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a measure of dispersion; the average of the squares of the deviations of the numbers in the list from their mean

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measure of dispersion

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variability of scores around a midpoint (usually the mean)

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standard deviation

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the average amount the scores differ from the mean; the square root of the variance

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skewed distribution

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having fewer scores on either side

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kurtosis

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Howspread apart or together items are distributed. Degree to which the tails ofthe distribution contain few scores or a lot of scores

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random error

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Error in measurement caused by factors thatvary from one measurement to another

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systematic error

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Error having a non-zero mean, so the effect isnot reduced when observations are averaged

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standard score

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Individual test score expressed as thedeviation from the mean score of the group in units of standard deviation

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null hypothesis

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Theopposite hypothesis to see if an effect or relationship doesn’t exist in thepopulation the decision to reject ornot reject the null hypothesis

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alpha

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a way to measure internal consistenty by how they are internally consistent with how the group would score them; correlating the even with odds

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type 1 error

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error when you find results that aren't there and rejecting the null when you shouldn't have

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type 2 error

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error when you don't reject the null and don't find significant results that are there

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types of sampling techniques

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time sampling, event sampling, situation sampling

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types of reliability

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interrater, split-half reliability, test-retest reliability, cronbach's alpha

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interrater reliability

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the degree to which the raters agree

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test-retest reliability

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type of reliability where the scores from the pre and post test are similar

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split-half reliability

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type of reliability where you correlate the odd items with the even items

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cronbach's alpha

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Method of testing scores’ internal consistentythat indicates the average correlation between scores on all pairs of items ona survey

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construct validity

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operationaldefinition of a concept and conclusions drawn from the data

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content validity

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to what degree the measure covers the whole domain of the construct

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predictive validity

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type of validity used to predict future performances based on the past

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probability sampling techniques

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survey methods, simple random samples, cluster samples, stratified random samples

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validity is based on

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reliability is based on