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362 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Energy flows into an ecosystem in the form of ____ and exits in the form of _______. |
light, heat. |
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The bonds between the phosphate groups of ATP's tail can be broken by _____.
Does the release of energy come from the chemical change to a state of lower free energy or from the phosphate bonds? |
hydrolysis
state of lower free energy |
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ATP drives endergonic rxns by ______. |
phosphorylation |
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activation energy
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• The energy required to initiate a chemical reaction; also defined as the energy required to overcome the energy barrier to a chemical reaction • Often supplied in the form of thermal energy (heat) that the reactant molecules absorb • Provides a barrier that determines the rate of the reaction • Absorption of thermal energy accelerates the reactant molecules, so they collide more often and more forcefully • It also agitates the atoms within the molecules, making the breakage of bonds more likely • When enough energy has been absorbed for the bonds to break, the reactants are in an unstable condition known as the transition state |
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anabolic reactions
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• Sometimes called biosynthetic pathways • Metabolic reactions that synthesize larger molecules from smaller ones • Includes synthesis of an amino acid from simpler molecules and the synthesis of a protein from amino acids • Energy released from the downhill reactions of catabolic pathways can be stored and then used to drive the uphill reactions of anabolic pathways |
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catabolic reactions
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• Metabolic reactions that break down larger molecules into smaller ones• A major pathway includes cellular respiration, in which the sugar glucose and other organic fuels are broken down in the presence of oxygen to carbon dioxide and water• Energy released from the downhill reactions of catabolic pathways can be stored and then used to drive the uphill reactions of anabolic pathways
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catalyst
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A substance that lowers the activation energy of a chemical reaction without being itself consumed by the reaction
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chemical energy
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A form of potential energy contained in the chemical bonds between atoms of a molecule; refers to the potential energy available for release in a bond |
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endergonic
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• Describing reactions that are non-spontaneous• Describing a chemical reaction that requires an input of energy into the system• The products have higher free energy than the reactants• This kind of reaction essentially stores free energy in molecules (G increases), so ∆G is positive• Magnitude of ∆G is the quantity of energy required to drive the reaction• If a chemical process is exergonic (downhill), releasing energy in one direction, then the reverse process must be endergonic (uphill), using energy
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energy
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The capacity to cause change, especially to do work (to move matter against an opposing force)
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energy-coupling
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• The linkage of an energy-releasing (exergonic) reaction to an energy-costing (endergonic) reaction to drive the energetically unfavorable endergonic reaction• Coupled reactions must have an overall release of free energy in order to occur spontaneously• ATP is responsible for mediation of most energy coupling in cells, and in most cases acts as the immediate source of energy that powers cellular work
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entropy |
• A measure of chaos or disorder in a system (randomness)• In a particular system, such as an organism, entropy may actually decrease as long as the total entropy of the universe (the system plus its surroundings), increases
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enzyme
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• Word first used by German physiologist Wilhelm Kühne in 1877 to describe the action of yeast leavening bread• A macromolecule serving as a biological catalyst, a chemical agent that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction• Most enzymes are proteins
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exergonic |
• Describing reactions that occur spontaneously • Describing a chemical reaction with a net release of energy • Because the chemical mixture loses free energy (G decreases), ∆G is negative • Magnitude of ∆G for an exergonic reaction represents the maximum amount of work the reaction can perform • The greater the decrease in free energy, the greater the amount of work that can be done • If a chemical process is exergonic (downhill), releasing energy in one direction, then the reverse process must be endergonic (uphill), using energy |
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first law of thermodynamics |
• Also known as the principle of conservation of energy• States that energy can be transformed from one form to another but cannot be created or destroyed; the amount of energy in a closed system is constant
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Gibbs free energy
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The energy that can be used by a system to perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform; also called free energy
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kinetic energy
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• The energy associated with the relative motion of objects• Moving matter can perform work by impartingmotion to other matter
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metabolic pathway
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A series of chemical reactions in a biological system in which molecules are assembled, decomposed or interconverted
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metabolism
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• The total chemical activity of a living organism; composed of both anabolic and catabolic reactions, which manage the material and energy resources of the organism • An emergent property of life that arises from orderly interactions between molecules |
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non-spontaneous reaction
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• A reaction in which ∆G has a value greater than zero• The reaction requires the addition of energy from the environment into the system
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potential energy
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• The form of energy associated with the position or arrangement of objects in a system • Molecules possess energy because of the arrangement of electrons in the bonds between their atoms |
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second law of thermodynamics
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• States that no energy transformation is perfectly efficient; in a closed system, some energy from every transformation will always be lost as heat, with a corresponding increase in entropy• A system can put heat to work only when there is a temperature difference that results in the heat flowing from a warmer location to a cooler one
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spontaneous reaction
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• A reaction in which ∆G has a value less than zero• The reaction can occur without adding energy from the environment into the system• The process is energetically favorable• For a process to occur spontaneously, it must increase the entropy of the universe
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the energy of life
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• Sugars can be converted to amino acids that are linked together into proteins when needed• When food is digested, proteins are dismantled into amino acids that can be converted to sugars• Small molecules are assembled into polymers,which may be hydrolyzed later as the needs of the cell change• In multicellular organisms, many cells export chemical products that are used in other parts of the organism• The process called cellular respiration drives the cellular economy by extracting the energy stored in sugars and other fuels
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bioenergetics
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1) The overall flow and transformationof energy in an organism2) The study of how energy flows through organisms
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thermal energy (heat)
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• The total amount of kinetic energy due to the random motion of atoms or molecules in a body of matter • Energy in its most random form |
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thermodynamics |
The study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter |
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system and surroundings
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• The system denotes the matter under study• The rest of the universe, or everything outside of the system, is known as the surroundings
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types of systems
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• An isolated system, such as that approximated by the liquid in a thermos bottle, is unable to exchange either energy or matter with its surroundings • In an open system, energy and matter can transferred between the system and its surroundings (ex. organisms -- they absorb energy such as light or chemical energy in the form of organic molecules and release heat and metabolic waste products, such as carbon dioxide, to the surroundings) |
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change in free energy, ∆G with enthalpy, temperature, and entropy
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• ∆G = ∆H - T∆S • Where ∆H symbolizes the change in the system's enthalpy (in biological systems, equivalent to total energy), ∆S is the change in the system's entropy, and T is the absolute temperature in units of Kelvin • Only processes with a negative ∆G are spontaneous • For ∆G to be negative, either ∆H must be negative (the system gives up enthalpy and H decreases) or T∆S must be positive (the system gives up order and S increases), or both • In other words, all spontaneous processes decrease the system's free energy |
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change in free energy, ∆G between final and initial states
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• ∆G = ∆G(final) - ∆G(initial)• ∆G can be negative only when the process involves a loss of free energy during the change from initial state to final state• So, change in free energy is a measure of a system's instability -- its tendency to change to a more stable state• Unstable systems (higher G) tend to change in such a way that they become more stable (lower G)
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equilibrium
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• A state of maximum stability• Most chemical reactions are reversible and proceed to a point at which the forward and backward reactions occur at the same rate, at which the reaction is then said to be at equilibrium, and there is no further net change in relative concentration of products and reactants• As a reaction proceeds toward equilibrium, the free energy of the mixture of reactants and products decreases• Any change from the equilibrium position will have a positive ∆G and will not be spontaneous; for this reason, systems never spontaneously move away from equilibrium• A process is spontaneous and can perform work only when it is moving toward equilibrium
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forming & breaking of bonds
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• Breaking of bonds does not release energy; it requires energy• Forming of bonds release energy
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metabolism and equilibrium
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• As a whole, metabolism is never at equilibrium, which is one of the defining features of life (ex. the constant flow of materials in and out of a living cell keeps the metabolic pathways from ever reaching equilibrium, and the cell continues to do work throughout its life)• The key to maintaining lack of equilibrium is that the product of a reaction does not accumulate but instead becomes a reaction in the next step; finally, waste products are expelled from the cell
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ATP (adenosine triphosphate) & ATP hydrolysis
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• Nucleoside triphosphate that contains the sugar ribose, with the nitrogenous base adenine and a chain of three phosphate groups bonded to it• Releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed, which is used to drive endergonic reactions in cells
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types of work performed by cells
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• Chemical work, the pushing of endergonic reactions that would not occur spontaneously, such as the synthesis of polymers from monomers • Transport work, the pumping of substances across membranes against the direction of spontaneous movement • Mechanical work, such as the beating of cilia, the contraction of muscle cells, and the movement of chromosomes during cellular reproduction |
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phosphorylated intermediate
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A molecule (often a reactant) with a phosphate group covalently bound to it, making it more reactive (less stable) than the unphosphorylated molecule
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the regeneration of ATP
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• ATP is a renewable resource that can be regenerated by the addition of a phosphate to ADP• The regeneration of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate is endergonic
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the activation energy barrier
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• Changing one molecule into another generally involves contorting the starting molecule into a highly unstable state before the reaction can proceed• To reach the contorted state when bonds can change, reactant molecules must absorb energy from their surroundings• When the new bonds of the product molecules form, energy is released as heat, and the molecules return to stable shapes with lower energy than the contorted state
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substrate
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• The reactant on which an enzyme works• The enzyme binds to its substrate(s), forming an enzyme-substrate complex• Catalytic action of the enzyme converts the substrate to the product(s) of the reaction |
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enzyme-substrate complex
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• A temporary complex formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate molecule(s)• Covalent bonds NOT typically used to stabilize enzyme-substrate complex
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enzyme specificity
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• Most enzyme are proteins, which have unique three-dimensional configurations• The specificity of an enzyme results from its shape, which is a consequence of its amino acid sequence• Only a restricted region of the enzyme molecule actually binds to the substrate
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active site
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• The specific region of an enzyme thatbinds the substrate and that forms the pocketin which catalysis occurs• Usually formed by only a few of the enzyme's amino acids, with the rest of the protein molecule providing a framework that determines the configuration of the active site• The specificity of an enzyme is attributed to a compatible fit between the shape of its active site and the shape of the substrate• Not a rigid receptacle for the substrate
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induced fit
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• Caused by entry of the substrate, the change in shape of the active site of an enzyme so that it binds more snugly to the substrate• Brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the chemical reaction
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the catalytic cycle of an enzyme
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• The rate at which a particular amount of enzyme converts substrate to product is partly a function of the initial concentration: the more substrate molecules that are available, and the more frequently they access the active sites of the enzyme molecules • When the concentration of the substrate is high enough that all enzyme molecules have their active sites engaged, the enzyme is said to be saturated, and the rate of the reaction is determined by the speed at which the active site converts substrate to product • When an enzyme is saturated, the only way to increase the rate of product is to add more enzyme |
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effects of temperature on enzyme activity
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• Reactions increase with increasing temperature, partly because substrates collide with active sites more frequently when the molecules move rapidly• Above that temperature, however, the speed of the reaction drops sharply• The thermal agitation of the enzyme molecule disrupts the hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and other weak interactions that stabilize the active shape of the enzyme, and the protein molecule eventually denatures• Each enzyme has an optimal temperature at which its reaction rate is greatest• Most human enzymes have optimal temperatures of about 35-40 degrees C (close to human body temperature)• Thermophilic bacteria that live in hot springs contain enzymes with optimal temperatures of 70 degrees C or higher
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effects of pH on enzyme activity
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• The optimal pH values for most enzymes fall in the range of pH 6-8• One exception is pepsin, a digestive enzyme in the human stomach, which works best at pH 2• In constrast, trypsin, a digestive enzyme residing in the alkaline environment of the human intestine, which has an optimal pH of 8, would denature in the acidic environment of the stomach
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cofactors
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• Any nonprotein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of an enzyme• Cofactors can be permanently bound to the active site or may bind loosely and reversibly, along with the substrate, during catalysis• Some cofactors of enzymes are inorganic such as metal atoms zinc, iron, and copper in ionic form• If the cofactor is an organic molecule, it is specifically called a coenzyme
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coenzyme
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• An organic molecule serving as a cofactor• Most vitamins function as coenzymes in metabolic reactions
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enzyme inhibitors
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• If the inhibitor attaches to the enzyme by covalent bonds, inhibition is usually irreversible• Many inhibitors bind to the enzyme by weak interactions, making the inhibition reversible• Competitive inhibitors resemble the normal substrate molecule and compete for admission into the active site• Noncompetitive inhibitors impede enzymatic reactions by binding to another part of the enzyme (they do not compete with the substrate to bind to the active site)
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competitive inhibitor
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• A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in place of the substrate, whose structure it mimics• May be overcome by increasing the concentration of substrate so that as active sites become available, more substrate molecules than inhibitor molecules are around to gain entry to the sites |
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noncompetitive inhibitor
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A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location remote from the active site, changing the enzyme’s shape so that the active site no longer effectively catalyzes the conversion of substrate to product
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the evolution of enzymes
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• More than 4,000 different enzymes have been found in different species• If the changed amino acids are in the active site or some other crucial region, the altered enzyme might have a novel activity or might bind to a different substrate• Under environmental conditions where the new function benefits the organism, natural selection would tend to favor the mutated form of the gene, causing it to persist in the population
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allosteric regulation
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• The binding of a regulatory molecule to a protein at one site that affects the function of the protein at a different site• May result in either inhibition or stimulation of an enzyme's activity
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cooperativity
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A kind of allosteric regulation whereby a shape change in one subunit of a protein caused by substrate binding is transmitted to all the other subunits, facilitating binding of additional substrate molecules to those subunits
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allosteric activation and inhibition
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• Most enzymes known to be allosterically regulated are constructed from two or more subunites, each composed of a polypeptide chain with its own active site• Entire complex oscillates between two different shapes, one catalytically active and the other• An activating or inhibiting regulatory molecule binds to a regulatory site, often located where subunits join• The binding of an activator to a regulatory site stabilizes the shape that has functional active sites, whereas the binding of an inhibitor stabilizes the inactive form of the enzyme• A single activator or inhibitor molecule that binds to one regulatory site will affect the active sites of all subunits
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ATP & APD in allosteric activation & inhibition
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• ATP binds to several catabolic enzymes allosterically, lowering their affinity for substrate and thus inhibiting their activity • ADP however, functions as an activator of the same enzymes • If ATP production lags behind its use, ADP accumulates and activates the enzymes that speed up catabolism, producing more ATP • If the supply of ATP exceeds demand, then catabolism slows down as ATP molecules accumulate and bind to the same enzymes, inhibiting them |
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identification of allosteric regulators
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• Hard to characterize, in part because they tend to bind to the enzyme at low affinity and are therefore hard to isolate• Allosteric regulators are attractive drug candidates because they exhibit higher specificity for particular enzymes than do inhibitors
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caspases
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• Protein-digesting enzymes that play an active role in inflammation and cell death• By specifically regulating these enzymes, may be able to better manage inappropriate inflammatory responses, such as those commonly seen in vascular and neurodegenerative disorders
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feedback inhibition
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A method of metabolic control in which the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway
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ribozymes
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An RNA molecule that catalyzes a biochemical reaction
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product
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The result(s) of a chemical reaction
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isozyme |
• An enzyme that catalyzes the same reaction as another enzyme but at a different optimum temperature• Because humans and other mammals maintain a fairly stable internal temperature, they have many fewer isozymes than organisms with fluctuating temperatures
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how ATP drives transport and mechanical work
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• ATP hydrolysis causes changes in the shapes and binding affinities of proteins• This can occur either (a) directly, by phosphorylation, as shown for a membrane protein carrying out active transport of a solute, or (b) indirectly, via noncovalent binding of ATP and its hydrolytic products, as is the case for motor proteins that move vesicles (and other organelles) along cytoskeletal “tracks” in the cell
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Redox Reactions
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transfer of electrons1) oxidation: loss of electrons -oxidizing agent accepts electrons -if hydrogens were lost, oxidized2) reduction: gain of electrons (adding electrons) reducing agent donates electrons if hydrogens were gained, reduction
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2 types
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Compare aerobic glucose metabolism with combustion of methane
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1) both are exergonic2) glucose metabolism has many steps and produces energy that can be harvested, combustion does not
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Complete oxidation of glucose
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C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (ATP + Heat) Glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water + energy (ATP + heat)
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Substrate-level phosphorylation
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1) substrate-level phosphorylation: making ATP by transferring a phosphate from an organic substrate to ADP - powered by the phosphate transfer (?) -reactants: substrate and ADP - stages 7 and 10 of glycolysis - produces less ATP than oxidative
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In which stages of cellular respiration is ATP produced by substrate-level phosphorylation?
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Glycolysis: 2 ATPCitric acid cycle: 2 ATP
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Oxidative phosphorylation
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2) oxidative phosphorylation: making ATP from ADP and Pi (inorganic phosphate)....etc + chemiosmosis -powered by redox reactions of an electron transfer chain -reactants: NADH, FADH2 (oxidized)
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How many ATP produced by oxidative phosphorylation (etc and chemiosmosis)?
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26 or 28 ATP
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Where do Glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, and the citric acid cycle occur?
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1) Glycolysis: cytosol2) Pyruvate oxidation: mitochondria3) Citric acid cycle: mitochondria
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What are the initial reactants (1) and end products (2) for glycolysis? What is oxidized (3) and what is reduced (4) ?
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Glycolysis:1) glucose2) 2 ATP, 2 pyruvate, 2 NADH3) sugar4) NAD
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Coenzymes
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small molecules required by some enzymes- bind to enzymes and chemically alter them- molecular "handles"NAD:reduction: hydrogen is added at top of hexose to make NADHoxidation: a hydrogen is taken off of the top of NADH
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How many steps do the catabolic pathways of glycolysis (1), pyruvate oxidation (2), and the citric acid cycle (3) each have?
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1) 10 steps2) 3 steps3) 8 steps (cycle = regeneration)
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Energy investing and energy harvesting (payoff)
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energy investing stage: steps 1 through 5- 2 ATP are used- steps 1 and 3energy harvesting (payoff) stage: steps 6 through 10- 4 ATP are formed- 2 in step 7 and 2 in step 10
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How many CO2 are produced from complete oxidation of glucose?
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- 1 in pyruvate oxidation- 2 in citric acid cycle
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Structure of an acetyl group
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C=O|CH3
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What has happened by the end of the citric acid cycle and what are the total products?
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Glucose catabolism is complete- 4 ATP, 10 NADH, 2 FADH2
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When did Krebs discover the cycle? When did he win the Nobel Prize?
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- discovered around 1937- won prize in 1953- knighted in 1958
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How many cycles are required to complete catabolism of 1 glucose?
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Two cycles. Everything doubles after step 6 of glycolysis.
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What is the electron transport chain and where is it found?
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A chain of proteins within the inner membrane of mitochondria- 4 complexes of proteins- several cytochrome proteins.- performs a series of redox reactions1) chain protiens transfer protons cross inner membr
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How does the potential energy of an electron change as it moves down the chain?
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It decreases to an energy minimum
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How do the electronegativities of the chain molecules differ along the chain?
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They alternate between oxidized (less electronegative) and reduced (more electronegative) states. |
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Chemiosmosis
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The use of a proton gradient to make ATP
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1) In which stages of cellular respiration is ATP made?2) In which is it consumed?3) In which are coenzymes reduced?4) In which are they oxidized?
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1) Glycolysis: 4 total, 2 net. Citric acid cycle: 2 (per glucose)2) Glycolysis: 23) Glycolysis: NAD. Pyruvate oxidation: NAD. Citric acid cycle: NAD and FAD4) Electron transport chain: NADH
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What is the path of energy flow through cellular respiration? (there are 4 transfers)
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glucose -> NADH -> etc -> proton gradient -> ATP
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What do each of the 4 stages of cellular respiration do?
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1) stages 1 through 3 oxidize glucose -transfer H to NAD making NADH (reduces NAD) - make ATP (by S.L.P???)2) stage 4 oxidizes NADH -ATP synthase makes ATP by energy of proton gradient
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What is the final tabulation of ATP per glucose after cellular respiration? What about CO2 and H2O?
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Glycolysis: 2 ATP, 4 H2OPyruvate oxidation: 2 CO2Citric acid cycle: 2 ATP, 4 CO2Oxidative phosphorylation: 32 ATP, 2 H2OTotal ATP: 36
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Which reactant of glycolysis must be recycled to keep it running? What are the differences between alcohol and lactic acid fermentation?
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- NADH is oxidized by pyruvate or a derivative of such to regenerate NADfermentation:- the NAD oxidizes sugar by glycolysis- 2 net ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation1) alcohol fermentation: 2 ethanol as end product2) lactic acid fermentation: 2 lactate as end product
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At which of the first 3 stages of cellular respiration does each fuel enter?
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1) Proteins (amino acids): - pyruvate of glycolysis - acetyl coA of pyruvate oxidation - citric acid cycle2) Carbs (sugars): - glycolysis3) Fats - glycerol -> G3P of glycolysis - fatty acids -> acetyl coA
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What are carb, lipid, and protein functions? (there are 2)
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1) storage2) carbon source
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What do catabolic pathways provide to anabolic ones that enable them to build?
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Intermediates are used for anabolic pathways1) glycolysis -> pyruvate2) acetyl coA -> citric acid cycle
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In which step of what pathway does phosphofructokinase (PFK) catalyze?
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3rd step of glycolysis
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How does PFK regulate cellular respiration? (Include all metabolites incolved and their role in feedback inhibition)
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1) has allosteric sites (can be positively or negatively regulated) - AMP stimulates - ATP and Citrate inhibit 2) controlled by feedback inhibition |
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What are the initial reactants (1) and end products (2) for the citric acid cycle? What is oxidized (3) and what is reduced (4)?
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Citric acid cycle:1) Acetyl coA2) 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 2 CO2 (double per glucose)3) Isocitrate, 2 other substrates4) NAD
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What are the initial reactants (1) and end products (2) for pyruvate oxidation? What is oxidized (3) and what is reduced (4)? |
Glycolysis:1) glucose2) 2 ATP, 2 pyruvate, 2NADH3) G3P (?)4) NAD
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What is a metabolic pathway?
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where chemical reactions occur in a cell
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What happens along a metabolic pathway?
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a specific molecule is altered in a series of defined steps, resulting in a certain product
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What is a catabolic pathways?
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a metabolic pathway where complex molecules are broken down to simpler compounds
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What is a major pathway of catabolism?
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cellular respiration
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What happens in cellular respiration?
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sugar glucose, other organic fuels, and oxygen are broken down to carbon dioxide and water
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What are anabolic pathways?
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pathways that consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones, aka biosynthetic pathways.
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What is an example of an anabolism?
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The synthesisof a protein fromm amino acids
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How are anabolic and catabolic pathways connected?
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Energy released from catabolism can be used in anabolic pathways
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What is bioenergetics?
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the study of how organisms manage their energy resourcces
*the study of how energy flows through living organisms |
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What is energy?
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the capacity to cause change |
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What is work?
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to move matter against opposing forces
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What are examples of work?
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gravity and friction
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What is chemical energy?
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the potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction
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What form can energy be lost in?
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Heat
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What is thermodynamics?
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study of energy transfer
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What is the first law of thermodynamics?
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energy can neither be created or destroyed
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What is the 2nd law of thermodynamics?
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energy transformation increases entropy in the universe
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What is entropy?
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a measure of disorder
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For a process to occur without energy input, it must increase the entropy of the universe. |
True. |
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What is a spontaneous process?
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occurs without the input of energy
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What does the letter G stand for in biology?
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Gibbs free enrgy system
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What is free energy?
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the portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure and uniform throughout the system
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How cant the change in free enrgy be calculated?
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the change in enthalpy (total energy) minus the change in absolute temperature (Kelvin) multiplied by the change in enthropy
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Will the change in temperature be negative or positive if the process is spontaneous?
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negative
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What must a process give up to be spontaneous?
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enthalpy, order or both
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How do you find the change in temperature?
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minus the original amount of free energy from the final state of energy
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Which has higher energy, a stable or unstable system?
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a unstable system
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What has lower energy, a unstable or stable system?
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a stable system.
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What is a name of maximum stability?
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equilibrium
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What happens as a reaction reaches equilibrium?
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the free energy of the reactants and products decreases
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What is the change in free energy for exergonic reactions?
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negative
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What does the magnitude of the change in free energy represent?
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the maximum amount of work the reaction can perform
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What is an exergonic reaction?
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a reaction that releases free energy, negative change in free energy
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What is an endergonic reaction?
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a reaction that needs free energy to occur, nonspontaneous
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What would occur if a cell is at metabollic equilibrium
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it would die
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What are the 3 main kinds of work a cell can do? |
Mechanical, transport, and chemical |
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What are examples of mechanical work of a cell?
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the beating of cilia, contraction of muscle cells, or the movement of chromosomes |
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What are examples of transport work of a cell?
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pumping of substances across membranes against spontaneous movement
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What are examles of chemical work?
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pushing of energonic reactions |
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What is energy coupling? |
the use of exergonic reactions to process an endergonic reaction |
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What energy is responsibile for mediating most energy coupling in cells?
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ATP
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What is ATP? |
Adenosine triphosphate, contains the sugar ribose, nitrogenous base adenine and a chain of 3 phosphate groups
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What can break the bond between the phosphate groups of ATP? |
hydrolysis
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activation energy
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The amount of energy that reactants must absorb before a chemical reaction will start; also called free energy of activation.
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active site
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The specific portion of an enzyme that binds the substrate by means of multiple weak interactions and that forms the pocket in which catalysis occurs.
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ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
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An adenine-containing nucleoside triphosphate that releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. This energy is used to drive endergonic reactions in cells.
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allosteric regulation
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The binding of a regulatory molecule to a protein at one site that affects the function of the protein at a different site.
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anabolic pathway
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A metabolic pathway that consumes energy to synthesize a complex molecule from simpler compounds.
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bioenergetics
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(1) The overall flow and transformation of energy in an organism. (2) The study of how energy flows through organisms.
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catabolic pathway
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A metabolic pathway that releases energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler compounds.
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catalyst
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A chemical agent that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
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chemical energy
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Energy available in molecules for release in a chemical reaction; a form of potential energy.
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coenzyme
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An organic molecule serving as a cofactor. Most vitamins function as coenzymes in metabolic reactions.
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cofactor
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Any nonprotein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of an enzyme. Cofactors can be permanently bound to the active site or may bind loosely with the substrate during catalysis.
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competitive inhibitor
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A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in place of the substrate whose structure it mimics.
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cooperativity
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A kind of allosteric regulation whereby a shape change in one subunit of a protein caused by substrate binding is transmitted to all the others, facilitating binding of subsequent substrate molecules.
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endergonic reaction
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A nonspontaneous chemical reaction, in which free energy is absorbed from the surroundings.
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energy
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The capacity to cause change, especially to do work (to move matter against an opposing force).
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energy coupling
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In cellular metabolism, the use of energy released from an exergonic reaction to drive an endergonic reaction.
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entropy
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A measure of disorder, or randomness.
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enzyme
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A macromolecule serving as a catalyst, a chemical agent that changes the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
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enzyme-substrate complex
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A temporary complex formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate molecule(s).
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exergonic reaction
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A spontaneous chemical reaction, in which there is a net release of free energy.
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feedback inhibition
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A method of metabolic control in which the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway.
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first law of thermodynamics
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The principle of conservation of energy: Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
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free energy
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The portion of a biological system’s energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system. (The change in free energy of a system is calculated by the equation ?G = ?H – T?S, where H is enthalpy [in biological systems, equivalent to total energy], T is absolute temperature, and S is entropy.)
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heat
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The total amount of kinetic energy due to the random motion of atoms or molecules in a body of matter; also called thermal energy. Heat is energy in its most random form.
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hemoglobin
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An iron-containing protein in red blood cells that reversibly binds oxygen. |
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induced fit
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Induced by entry of the substrate, the change in shape of the active site of an enzyme so that it binds more snugly to the substrate.
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kinetic energy
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The energy associated with the relative motion of objects. Moving matter can perform work by imparting motion to other matter.
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metabolic pathway
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A series of chemical reactions that either builds a complex molecule (anabolic pathway) or breaks down a complex molecule into simpler compounds (catabolic pathway).
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metabolism
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The totality of an organism’s chemical reactions, consisting of catabolic and anabolic pathways, which manage the material and energy resources of the organism.
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noncompetitive inhibitor
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A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location remote from the active site, changing the enzyme’s shape so that the active site no longer functions effectively.
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phosphorylated
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Referring to a molecule that is covalently bonded to a phosphate group.
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potential energy
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The energy that matter possesses as a result of its location or spatial arrangement (structure).
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ribose
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The sugar component of RNA nucleotides.
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second law of thermodynamics |
The principle stating that every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe. Ordered forms of energy are at least partly converted to heat.
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substrate
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The reactant on which an enzyme works.
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thermodynamics
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The study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter. See first law of thermodynamics; second law of thermodynamics. |
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The __, like the __, regenerates its starting material after molecules enter and leave the cycle The cycle builds sugar from smaller molecules by using ATP and the reducing power of electrons carried by NADPH |
Calvin Cycle Citric acid cycle |
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take co2 that we produce.. atp from light part.. whole kreb scycle thing then produce sugar.. SO U HAVE TO KNOW THE MEANING OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS.. WHAT DOE SIT DO IN THE PHOTO PART.. GENERATE OXYGEN FROM WTER. generate atp from ligt source.. lose part of it as heat.. this energy and this coenxyme nadph.. are use din calvin cycle.. and use our co2 to generate sugar! that u have to know. |
T |
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The _______ is the idea that parents pass on discrete heritable units (genes) |
“particulate” hypothesis |
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character |
A heritable feature that varies among individuals (such as flower color) is called a |
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trait |
Each variant for a character, such as purple or |
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Other advantages of using peas |
Short generation time Large numbers of offspring Mating could be controlled; plants could be allowed to self-pollinate or could be cross pollinated |
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true-breeding (plants that produce offspring of the same variety when they self-pollinate) |
T |
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allele |
Any of the alternative versions of a gene that produce distinguishable phenotypic effects. |
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amniocentesis |
A technique of prenatal diagnosis in which amniotic fluid, obtained by aspiration from a needle inserted into the uterus, is analyzed to detect certain genetic and congenital defects in the fetus. |
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carrier
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In genetics, an individual who is heterozygous at a given genetic locus, with one normal allele and one recessive allele. The heterozygote is phenotypically dominant for the character determined by the gene but can pass on the recessive allele to offspring.
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character
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An observable heritable feature.
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chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
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A technique of prenatal diagnosis in which a small sample of the fetal portion of the placenta is removed and analyzed to detect certain genetic and congenital defects in the fetus.
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codominance
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The situation in which the phenotypes of both alleles are exhibited in the heterozygote because both alleles affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways. |
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complete dominance
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The situation in which the phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are indistinguishable.
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cystic fibrosis
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A human genetic disorder caused by a recessive allele for a chloride channel protein; characterized by an excessive secretion of mucus and consequent vulnerability to infection; fatal if untreated.
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dihybrid
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An organism that is heterozygous with respect to two genes of interest. All the offspring from a cross between parents doubly homozygous for different alleles are dihybrids. For example, parents of genotypes AABB and aabb produce a dihybrid of genotype AaBb. |
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dominant allele |
An allele that is fully expressed in the phenotype of a heterozygote. |
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epistasis
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A type of gene interaction in which one gene alters the phenotypic effects of another gene that is independently inherited. |
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F1 generation
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The first filial, or hybrid, offspring in a series of genetic crosses. |
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F2 generation
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Offspring resulting from interbreeding of the hybrid F1 generation. |
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genotype
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The genetic makeup, or set of alleles, of an organism.
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heterozygous
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Having two different alleles for a given gene.
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homozygous
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Having two identical alleles for a given gene.
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Huntington’s disease
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A human genetic disease caused by a dominant allele; characterized by uncontrollable body movements and degeneration of the nervous system; usually fatal 10 to 20 years after the onset of symptoms.
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hybridization
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In genetics, the mating, or crossing, of two true-breeding varieties.
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incomplete dominance
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The situation in which the phenotype of heterozygotes is intermediate between the phenotypes of individuals homozygous for either allele. |
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law of independent assortment
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9:3:3:1 Mendel’s second law, stating that each pair of alleles segregates, or assorts, independently of each other pair during gamete formation; applies when genes for two characters are located on different pairs of homologous chromosomes.
This law applies only to genes on different, nonhomologous chromosomes or those far apart on the same chromosome |
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law of segregation |
Mendel’s first law, stating that the two alleles in a pair segregate (separate) into different gametes during gamete formation. |
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monohybrid |
An organism that is heterozygous with respect to a single gene of interest. All the offspring from a cross between parents homozygous for different alleles are monohybrids. For example, parents of genotypes AA and aa produce a monohybrid of genotype Aa. |
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multifactorial |
Referring to a phenotypic character that is influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors. |
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norm of reaction |
The range of phenotypes produced by a single genotype, due to environmental influences. |
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P generation
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The parent individuals from which offspring are derived in studies of inheritance; P stands for “parental.” |
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pedigree
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A diagram of a family tree showing the occurrence of heritable characters in parents and offspring over multiple generations. |
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phenotype
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The physical and physiological traits of an organism, which are determined by its genetic makeup. |
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pleiotropy
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The ability of a single gene to have multiple effects. |
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polygenic inheritance
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An additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character. |
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Punnett square
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A diagram used in the study of inheritance to show the predicted results of random fertilization in genetic crosses. |
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quantitative character
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A heritable feature that varies continuously over a range rather than in an either-or fashion.
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recessive allele
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An allele whose phenotypic effect is not observed in a heterozygote.
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sickle-cell disease |
A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele that results in the substitution of a single amino acid in a globin polypeptide that is part of the hemoglobin protein. |
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Tay-Sachs disease
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A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele for a dysfunctional enzyme, leading to accumulation of certain lipids in the brain. Seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor and mental performance usually become manifest a few months after birth, followed by death within a few years.
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testcross
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Breeding an organism of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual to determine the unknown genotype. The ratio of phenotypes in the offspring reveals the unknown genotype. |
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trait
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Any detectable variant in a genetic character.
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true-breeding
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Referring to plants that produce offspring of the same variety when they self-pollinate.
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|
What is the function of Cellular Respiration?
|
To make ATP
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|
What are the two types of respiration?
|
Taking in oxygen and turning it into carbon dioxide and cellular respiration where food nutrients are changed into ATP.
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Where does cellular respiration occur (chiefly)
|
mitochondria
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|
what are the reactants of cellular respiration?
|
glucose and oxygen
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What are the products of cellular respiration?
|
water, carbon dioxide, and ATP
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|
What is the equation for cellular respiration?
|
C6H12O6+O2 ------> H2O+CO2+ATP
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|
what are some life functions that cellular respiration aids?
|
biosynthesis, nerve impulses, movement, transport, and growth.
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An example of structure determines function is the inner membrane of the mitochondria. What is the structure and function of the inner membrane of the mitochondria?
|
The inner membrane is highly folded, which gives it ample surface area. The electron transport chain occurs there.
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|
what is a calorie?
|
A calorie is the amount of energy it takes to raise one gram of water one degree Celsius.
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What are the stages of cellular respiration (3)? In order
|
glycolysis, krebs cycle, and electron transport chain.
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Where does glycolysis occur?
|
cytoplasm
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Does glycolysis require oxygen? What is this called?
|
Glycolysis does not require oxygen, so it is anaerobic.
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Define glycolysis.
|
Glycolysis is the process in which glucose gets split in half, forming two, three carbon pyruvic acids.
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What are the products of glycolysis?
|
2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvic acids
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Does the Krebs Cycle require oxygen? What is this called?
|
The Krebs Cycle does require oxygen so that means that it is aerobic.
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WHere does the Krebs Cycle take place>
|
The Krebs Cycle takes place in the mitochondria.
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What does the Krebs cycle do to pyruvic acid?
|
During the Krebs Cycle, pyruvic acid forms citric acid first, then carbon dioxide comes off, nadh comes off, and the new electron carrier, fadh2 comes off.
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|
what are the products of the krebs cycle?
|
6 NADH, 2 ATP, 4CO2, and 2 FADH2
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What is known as the central factor in metabolism?and why
|
the krebs cycle... or citric acid cycle is known as the central factor in metabolism. It is known as the central factor of metabolism because it breaks down lipids, carbs and proteins into ATP.
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Where does the Electron Transport Chain take place>
|
the inner membrane of the mitochondria.
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What are the two electron carriers in the electron transport chain?
|
nadh and fadh2
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|
how many atp molecules does the electron transport chain produce alone?
|
34 atp
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|
How many atp molecules are made from cellular respiration?
|
38. two from both glycolysis and the krebs cycle and 34 from etc.
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|
what process does fermentation always follow?
|
fermentation always follows glycolysis.
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|
what is the definition of fermentation?
|
Fermentation is the process in which nutrients are turned into atp in the presence of oxygen.
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|
what are the two types of fermentation?
|
lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation
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|
what is the function of fermentation?
|
the function of fermentation is to produce nad+ it is anaerobic.
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|
what happens to the nad+ in fermentation after it is made?
|
the nad+ molecules go back to glycolysis after they are made during fermentation.
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|
what organisms use alcoholic fermentation?
|
bacteria, yeast, and other microorganisms.
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|
what is the equation for alcoholic fermentation?
|
Pyruvic Acid +NADH---> alcohol+ CO2 + NAD+
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|
What is the equation for lactic acid fermentation?
|
pyruvic acid+ NADH -----> lactic acid + CO2 + NAD+
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|
compare lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation
|
Both produce Pyruvic acid and NADH to produce NAD+ and alcoholic fermentation releases co2 and lactic acid does not.
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|
how many atp molecules can a cell produce from a single glucose molecule during cellular respiration?
|
38
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|
what is the function of NAD+ in glycolysis?
|
In glycolysis, Nad+ accepts a pair of high-energy electrons and transports them to the etc.
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|
What is fermentation, in a more scientific stance?
|
The process which converts NADH to NAD+ by passing high-energy electrons back to pyruvic acid.
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|
when you are running and need to sustain a rapid pace, what is the order of processes that you will go through in order to get energy? There are three places...
|
1- Stored ATP2- Cellular Respiration3- Lactic Acid Fermentation
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|
How does fermentation allow glycolysis to continue?
|
it makes nad+
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|
what does lactic acid fermentation convert into lactic acid?
|
nadh and pyruvic acid.
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|
when does the krebs cycle begin?
|
krebs cycle begins when pyruvic acid enters the mitochondrion.
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|
why is the krebs cycle aka the citric acid cycle?
|
because citric acid is the first compound that is produced in the krebs cycle.
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|
what happens to pyruvic acid during the krebs cycle?
|
during the krebs cycle, pyruvic acid is broken down into co2 in a series of energy-producing steps.
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|
in the presence of oxygen how is the pyruvic acid produced in glycolysis used?
|
it goes to the krebs cycle.
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|
what happens to the carbon dioxide produced in breaking down pyruvic acid?
|
it goes to the air, or in other words, it's exhaled.
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|
during the energy extraction part of the krebs cycle, how many molecules of co2 are released?
|
4
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|
what is the energy tally from one molecule of pyruvic acid during the krebs cycle?
|
3nadh, 1 fadh2, 1 atp!!!!
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|
at the end of glycolysis, how much of the chemical energy in glucose is still unused?
|
about ninety percent |
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|
when electrons join nad+ and fad during the KREBS cycle, what do they form?
|
NADH and FADH2
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|
why is the four carbon compound generated in the breakdown of citric acid the only permanent compound in the krebs cycle?
|
because citric acid is regenerated at the end of every cycle.
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|
what is the electron transport chain?
|
Series of proteins in the inner membrane of the mitochondria
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|
what does the electron transport chain use the high-energy electrons from the krebs cycle for?
|
they convert adp into atp by pumping protons into the intermembrane space, creating potential energy... ADP plus phosphate equals atp.
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|
where does the electron transport chain get the high energy electrons that are passed down the chain?
|
from NADH and FADH2.which come from the krebs cycle
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|
what is the final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain>?
|
oxygen!!!
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|
what is the energy of the high energy electrons used for every time two high energy electrons move down the electron transport chain?
|
transportation of hydrogen ions across the membrane.
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|
what causes the h+ ions in the intermembrane space to move through the channels in the membrane and out into the matrix?
|
hydrogen ions are attracted to negative charges found in the matrix, so they travel through the atp synthase to get there.
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|
high energy electrons from nadh and fadh2 are passed into and along the what???
|
electron transport chain
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|
the energy from the electrons moving down the chain is used to move hydrogen ions across the what?
|
inner membrane
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|
hydrogen ions build up in the ___________ space, making it ___________ charged and making the matrix negatively charged.
|
intermembrance, and positively
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|
hydrogen ions move through channels of _____________ in the inner membrane.
|
atp synthase.
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|
the atp synthase uses the energy from the moving ions to combine adp and phosphate, forming high-energy ________?
|
atp
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|
why is more atp generated from glucose in the presence of oxygen?
|
glucose can go through aerobic, which produces 38 instead of fermentation which produces much fewer, closer to 4 atp.
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|
how are photosynthesis and cerlular respiration opposite in terms of co2?
|
ps takes co2 in and cellular resp puts it back out.
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|
how are photosynthesis and cellular resp opposite in terms of oxygen?
|
ps releases o2 and cr takes it in.
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|
What is Metabolism (aka cellular respiration) and how many steps does it involve?
|
Metabolism is the breakdown of food for energy (ATP) and it involves 4 steps.
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|
What is a catalyst (def.)? And how does it work?
|
A catalyst is an enzyme(in microorganisms) that speeds up a chemical reaction and remains unchanged in the process. It works by reducing the amount of energy required for the reaction. Like a booster for the reaction.
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|
How many enzymes catalyze how many reactions? What is a substrate?
|
One enzyme catalyzes only one kind of reaction.A substrate is the substance an enzyme reacts upon.
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What are enzymes composed of?
|
All enzymes are composed of proteins.
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What is a denatured Enzyme?
|
A denatured enzyme is one that is altered or damaged.
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|
How does an enzyme work with the substrate to speed up a reaction?
|
Enzymes work by lock-and-key mechanisms. Each enzyme has an active site (lock) and it's substrate has a particular configuration (key) that fits into the enzymes active site which 'unlocks' the enzyme to speed up (catalyze) the reaction.
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|
What common spelling suffix do enzymes have?
|
-ase
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|
The rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions depends on 4 things, what are those 4 things?
|
1-the concentration of the substrate2-the concentration of the enzyme3-the temperature of the environment (~37 degreesC max)4-the acidity of the environment (~7.5 PH Max)
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|
What is the definition of Catabolism? What is ATP's role?What are 3 examples?
|
Catabolism is the breakdown or digestion of large complex (macro) molecules.Energy released during Catabolist reactions is in the form of ATP.EX: Hydrolysis, digestion, fermentation
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|
What is the definition of Anabolism?What is ATP's role?What are 3 examples?
|
Anabolism is the synthesis or creation generally by joining together smaller micro molecules. Energy trapped during the an Anabolist reaction is trapped in ATP. Ex:synthesis of macromolecules, protein synthesis, photosynthesis |
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|
What is the currency of energy in the microbial cell?
|
ATP Adenosine Triphosphate
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|
What are the three parts of ATP?
|
1 double ring of carbon and nitrogen called adenine1 five carbon carbohydrate called ribose3 phosphate groups
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|
How are the 3 phosphate groups linked?
|
The three phosphate groups in ATP are linked by high energy covalent bonds.
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|
What happens when ATP is catabolized by an enzyme and how much energy is made available?
|
The third phosphate group is released and 7.3 kilocalories of energy are made available to do the work on the microorganism.
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|
What are the products when ATP is broken down?
|
ADP and a phosphate ion.
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|
What is a coenzyme and how does it relate to a cofactor?
|
A coenzyme is an organic cofactor (a chemical substance which assists enzymes to catalyze a reaction.)
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|
Name 3 important coenzymes:
|
NAD- Nicotinamide Adenine DinucleotideNADP- Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide PhosphateFAD- Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide
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|
How is energy generated during the chemical reaction of metabolism?
|
during the chemical reaction of metabolism, coenzymes accept electrons then pass them on to other coenzymes or other molecules. The passing of electrons generates energy.
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|
What is the removal of electrons from a coenzyme called?Loss of Electrons:
|
Oxidation
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|
What is the addition of electrons to a coenzyme called?Gain of Electrons:
|
Reduction
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The reactions performed by coenzymes are called what?
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Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
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What molecules other than coenzymes also pass electrons to create energy?
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Cytochromes
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What is the system of reactions, in which coenzymes and cytochromes participate in passing of electrons to create energy, called?
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The Electron Transport System
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As high energy electrons (ADP and Phosphate ion) move through the ________ ________ _______, they are passed between _______ and ________,
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Electron Transport SystemCytochromes and Coenzymes
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What happens to Cytochromes and Coenzymes energy as they move through the Electron Transport System?What is the energy turned into?
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Cytochomes and Coenzymes Energy is drained as they are moved along the Electron Transport System.Energy is formed into ATP.
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ATP formation from the Electron Transport system occurs where in Prokaryotes and where in Eukaryotes?
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In Prokaryotes it occurs in the cell membranes.In Eukaryotes it occurs in the mitochondria.
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For every molecule of Gluclose, How many molecules of ATP are generated in Prokayotes and Eukayotes? Is there a difference in the amount generated and why?
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Prokayotes generate 38 ATP molecules from every one molecule of ATP.Eukaryotes generate 36 ATP molecules from every one molecule of gluclose. Yes, mitochondria charge a fee of 2 ATP.
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What is the formula for Cellular Respiration?
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C6H1206 (glucose) + 6 O2 = 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 36/38 ATPs |
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What are the microorganisms called that can trap energy they need for metabolism through direct light(photosynthesis)?
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Autotrophs
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What are the microorganisms called that must rely on pre-formed carbohydrates found in their environment to obtain energy needed for metabolism?
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Heterotrophs
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What kind of process is cellular respiration?(Aerobic or anaerobic)Why?
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Cellular respiration is an aerobic process because the last step involves Oxygen Gas as the final acceptor of electrons in the electron transport system. |
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What type of Cellular respiration does Heterotrophs perform and what type does Autotrophs perform?
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Heterotrophs perfom aerobic cellular respiration and Autotrophs perform anaerobic respiration.
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Name the 4 steps of cellular respiration in order.
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1-Glycolysis2-Intermediate Step3-Krebs Cycle4-The Electron Transport System
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During Glycolysis, glucose molecule is broken down to form what?
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2 pyruvic acids and 8 ATP
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Glycolysis is an aerobic or anaerobic process?
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Anaerobic
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Why is glycolysis considered to be a somewhat inefficient process?
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Because much energy is left in the pyruvic acids which is why the process of cellular respiration must continue for most aerobic organisms to yield more energy.
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What is involved in the intermediate step in cellular respiration?
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The intermediate step in cellular respiration takes 2 pyruvic acids which are broken down to yield 2 acetyl-coA's and 6 ATP.(2 High energy molecules of NADH(yielding 3 ATP each)are also formed.)2x3=6ATP
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What is involved during Krebb's cycle?
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2 Acetyl-CoA's are wormed throuh to yield 12 ATP each for a total of 24 ATP.
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How is the energy yeild broken down in Krebb's cycle?
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3 NADH1 FADH21 GTP-----per acetyl-CoA
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How many ATP are NADH, FADH2 and GTP worth?
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NADH=3 ATPFADH2=2 ATPGTP=1 ATP
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Electrons are transported along a series of coenzymes and cytochromes and the energy in the electrons is released.
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The Electron Transport System
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What is the final electron acceptor in the Electron Transport system and what is formed?
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Oxygen is the final electron acceptor and water is formed.
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How does Oxygen work in the Electron Transport System?
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Oxygen is responsible for removing electrons from the system; without oxygen, electrons could not be released and ATP could not be produced.
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What does the reaction look like in the final step of the Electron Transport System?
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2H + ½ O2 = H2O
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Summarize the steps and how you get 38/36 ATP in Cellular Respiration?
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1. Glycolysis= Gluclose to 2 pyruvic Acid= 6 ATP2. Intermediate Step=Pyruvic acid to 2 Acetyl-CoA= 8 ATP3. Krebbs Cylcle= 2 Acetyl-CoA to 3 NADH x 3 ATP= 9 ATP1 FADH2 x 2 ATP= 2 ATP1 GTP x 1 ATP= 1 ATP=12 x 2= 24 + 8 + 6=38ATP
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What kind of process is fermentation and where does it occur?How many ATP does it yield?What is it also known as?
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fermentation is an anaerobic process which occurs in yeast cells(to produce alcohol) or muscle or bacteria cells. It yields 2 ATP. A.K.A. Anaerobic Glycolysis |
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What is photosynthesis?
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A light-dependent reaction requiring chlorophyll.
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What is Hill's reaction?
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A light dependent reaction: Chlorophyll absorbs light photons and excites molecules which release energy to split water molecules.
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What is Calvin Cycle?
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The Dark reaction: (carbon fixing reaction)The energy from the light reaction drives a series of reactions which ultimately yields glucose from CO2.
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What is the formula for photosynthesis?
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6 CO2 + 6 H2O = C6H1206 (glucose) + 6 O2 ↑ (gas)
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In the carbon fixing stage, where is CO2 obtained?
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From the atmosphere.
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How do photosynthesis and cellular respiration differ?
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They are opposites in that Cellular respiration starts with glucose and oxygen and ends with carbon dioxide and water, and Photosynthesis starts with water and carbon dioxide and ends in oxygen and glucose. |
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These alternative versions of a gene are called |
alleles |
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Each gene resides at a specific ___ on a specific ___ |
locus chromosome |
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Mendel's Four Concepts |
1. alternative versions of genes account for variations in inherited characters Second: for each character, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent Third: if the two alleles at a locus differ, then one (the dominant allele) determines the organism’s appearance, and the other (the recessive allele) has no noticeable effect on appearance
Fourth (the law of segregation): the two alleles for a heritable character separate (segregate) during gamete formation and end up in different gametes when they transmit, when they mix, they separate independently - when i tell you with DNA the genes separate independently now with this story you catch it.
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Punnett square |
Possible combinations of sperm and egg can be shown using a |
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Unlike homozygotes, heterozygotes are not true- breeding |
T |
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Unlike homozygotes, heterozygotes are not true- breeding |
true breeding means offspring is 100% same characteristics of parents like incest. heterozygous is hybrid breeding in real life. |
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The __________ states that the probability that two or more independent events will occur together is the product of their individual probabilities |
multiplication rule |
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The _____ states that the probability that any one of two or more exclusive events will occur is calculated by adding together their individual probabilities The rule of addition can be used to figure out the probability that an F2 plant from a monohybrid cross will be heterozygous rather than homozygous |
addition rule |
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A multicharacter cross is equivalent to two or more independent monohybrid crosses occurring simultaneously |
In calculating the chances for various genotypes, each character is considered separately, and then the individual probabilities are multiplied
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Many heritable characters are not determined by only one gene with two alleles
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T |
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Inheritance of characters by a single gene may deviate from simple Mendelian patterns in the following situations: |
When alleles are not completely dominant or recessive When a gene has more than two alleles |
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For any character, dominance/recessiveness relationships of alleles depend |
on the level at which we examine the phenotype |
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Tay-Sachs disease is fatal; a dysfunctional enzyme causes an accumulation of lipids in the brain |
At the organismal level, the allele is recessive enzyme activity level) is incompletely dominant |
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Dominant alleles are not necessarily more common in populations than recessive alleles |
For example, one baby out of 400 in the United States is born with extra fingers or toes |
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Most genes have multiple phenotypic effects, a property called ___ |
pleiotropy. For example, pleiotropic alleles are responsible for the multiple symptoms of certain hereditary diseases, such as cystic fibrosis and sickle-cell disease |
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Some traits may be determined by two or more genes |
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Another departure from Mendelian genetics arises when the phenotype for a character depends on environment as well as genotype |
The phenotypic range is broadest for polygenic characters |
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multifactorial |
Traits that depend on multiple genes combined with environmental influences are called |
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An organism’s phenotype |
includes its physical appearance, internal anatomy, physiology, and behavior |
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An organism’s phenotype reflects its overall genotype and |
unique environmental history |
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Humans are not good subjects for genetic research
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Generation time is too long |
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Consanguineous matings |
(i.e., matings between close relatives) increase the chance of mating between two carriers of the same rare allele |
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allele results in defective or absent chloride transport channels in plasma membranes leading to a buildup of chloride ions outside the cell Symptoms include mucus buildup in some internal organs and abnormal absorption of nutrients in the small intestine |
cystic fibrosis |
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Sickle-cell disease affects one out of 400 African- Americans The disease is caused by the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein in red blood cells In homozygous individuals, all hemoglobin is abnormal (sickle-cell) Symptoms include physical weakness, pain, organ damage, and even paralysis |
Sickle-Cell Disease: A Genetic Disorder with Evolutionary Implications |
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Huntington’s disease |
is a degenerative disease of the nervous system
The disease has no obvious phenotypic effects until the individual is about 35 to 40 years of age Once the deterioration of the nervous system begins the condition is irreversible and fatal |
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In amniocentesis,
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the liquid that bathes the fetus is removed and tested |
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In chorionic villus sampling (CVS), |
a sample of the placenta is removed and tested |
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Other techniques, such as ultrasound and fetoscopy, |
allow fetal health to be assessed visually in utero |
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