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102 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Gender difference
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making the distinction between sex and gender; and noting that what people believe people see.
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Gender
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a system of beliefs and practices that refer to or deal with creating a sense of differencebetween females and males (the social construction of gender)
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Social structure
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patterns of social practice, interaction
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Culture
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society’s system of meanings and understandings that shape ways of knowing and thinking, and social interaction (a toolkit).
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Gender socialization
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interaction (interpersonal and institutional) to leads to and understanding of “appropriate” gender behavior
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Femininity and masculinity
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– understanding the great variations that exist across race, class, ethnicity, sexuality
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Gender Inequality
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not just difference but a system of inequality
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Gender order
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the overarching patterns of gender in society
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Patriarchy
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the rule of men
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Gendered power
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association of masculinity with authority and privilege
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Hegemonic masculinity
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power afforded only to a certain category of masculine men.
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Richard Mora
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'Do it for all Your Pubic Hairs!'' : Latino Boys, Masculinity, and Puberty
This article examines how a group of 10 sixth-grade Latino boys, who publicly acknowledged that they were experiencing puberty, employed their bodies at school to construct their masculine identities. Puberty as a social accomplishment. Focus: the gender construction of Latino boys, an understudied segment of the U.S. population (immigrant Dominican and Puerto Rican boys) “heteronormativity” Ethnographic study. Overall, the findings discussed earlier suggest that pubescence is a social process as much as a biological transformation, a social process that is interactional, collective, embodied, and situated in classed, gendered, and ethnoracialized contexts. In addition, the data contribute to the study of gender and masculinities by explicating how the boys, as U.S.-born Dominicans and Puerto Ricans residing in low-income neighborhoods, constructed their masculine identities while seeking to abide by the dominant gender expectations in localized social worlds and the norms from their countries of origin. |
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Sociology’s Bedrock Assumption
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Individuals shape their lives within both historical and social contexts.
We respond to the world we encounter shaping, modifying, and creating our identities through those encounters with other people and within social institutions. |
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Sociological perspective
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Sociological perspectives on gender assume the variability of gendered identities , the biological imperative toward gender identity and differentiation (imperatives not of the body but of the environment) and the psychological imperatives toward both autonomy and connection.
Both biographies (identities) and history (evolving social structures) are gendered – returning to the sociological imagination of C. Wright Mills. |
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Sociology’s critique of Biological determinism
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Rather than taking our experiences as inborn differences, sociology examines the variations among men and women as well as the differences within them, differences that come from social origins.
Biology alone does not determine our development; we need to interact, to be socialized, part of society. Interaction makes us who we are. It is the task of the sociological imagination to specify the way in which our experiences and interactions with others and with institutions combine to shape who we are. Biology provides the raw materials, while society and history provide the context, the instruction manual that we follow to construct our identities. |
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Gender as a Socially Constructed concept
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Gender, like other social constructs, is not an excuse for why we do what we do. We are not attempting to deflect our accountability of responsibility.
Gender identity is meant to convey that our identities “are a fluid assemblage of the meanings and behaviors what we construct from the values, images, and prescriptions we find in the world around us.” Gender is at the same time voluntary and coerced. |
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Elements of a social constructionist perspective on gender
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Definitions of masculinity and femininity are forever changing, across cultures and across time.
Gender definitions also change throughout the course of a person’s life. Definitions of masculinity and femininity vary within any one culture at any one time, through variations across race, class, ethnicity, age, sexuality, education, region of the county etc. (intersectionaity, in the simplest sense). |
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So what, again, does Sociology contribute?
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Difference (plurality of gender definitions)
Power (struggles among groups) Institutional dimensions of power (interplay of gendered individuals and gendered institutions) |
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Psychoanalysis and Freud
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Gender is acquired and determined by biology:
Prior to birth, all needs are gratified After birth, they must be provided Baby at “oral stage” where gratification is breast-feeding At “anal stage” toddler learns to control excretions At “genital stage” gender begins: boys must learn to be masculine, girls feminine: Easier for girls who bond with mothers Harder for boys who cannot identify with their mothers |
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Freud: Oedipal Crisis
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During boys’ gender differentiation, the Oedipal Crisis must be resolved :
Boy must break identification with mother, desire her, realize he’s competing with his father, be afraid that his father will castrate him upon learning of his desire for his mother, resolve that fear by transferring affection from mom to dad, and come to identify with his father—thus becoming masculine, heterosexual, and capable of sex with mother-like substitutes |
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Freud: Girls’ gender differentiation
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During girls’ gender differentiation, they must renounce their sexual desire for their moms, since they are incapable of having sexual relations with her because of differing (same)anatomies:
Women experience ‘penis envy’ because they realize they cannot have their mother, as their fathers do, so they must transfer that desire to the desire to be possessed sexually so that they can have a baby , which will be their true source of feminine gratification; they must transfer the location of sexual gratification from their atrophied penis (their clitoris) to their vagina |
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Freud: Gender and sexuality are psychological not biological
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Must be resolved within the family
Homosexuality is a gender identity issue rather than a morality issue Traditional gender roles are successful signs of good mental health |
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Freud: Implications
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Gender is acquired within the family, then the parents are to blame—at least in part—for their children’s failures to successfully
M-F test: Scoring along cultural gender values, and children who ‘failed’ were given therapies |
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Piaget
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Children are born gender neutral and develop as they process their experiences through their ‘cognitive filters’
Children are active learners not just passive recipients: By age two, they know they are a boy or a girl because of concrete clues that they interpret After age six, the child sees the world in gendered terms, attributing gender to people and not to the markers |
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Feminist Critiques: Freud: Penis envy
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Men over-emphasizing the importance of their genitalia who see women as naturally inferior to men
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Horney
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Horney: the actual social subordination of women provided the context for women’s development—and their lack of satisfaction
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Bettleheim
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Bettleheim: women are subordinated by men because of the male envy or fear of child-bearing
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Chowdorow
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Chowdorow: Reverses the question, asking why do men feel inappropriately superior to women? Freud’s ‘successful’ male development creates men who are less human, less social, less capable of intimacy
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Kohlberg: Moral Development
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Kohlberg believed most women ‘arrested’ at the third stage of moral development and could not make ‘proper’ judgments based on universal ethics
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Gilligan
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Gilligan: Women make different, not improper, decisions, based on an ‘ethic of care’ which they balance with the ‘ethic of justice’:
She helped to form a new psychology for women by listening to them and rethinking the meaning of self and selfishness. She asked four questions about women's voices: who is speaking, in what body, telling what story, and in what cultural framework is the story presented? |
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Developmental Differences
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Maccoby and Jacklin found only four developmental gender differences in 1600 studies, from 1966 to 1973
Girls’ higher verbal ability Boys’ better visual and spatial skills Boys’ higher success at math tests Boys’ higher aggression |
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Social Psychology of Sex Roles
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M-F Test to predict other ‘abnormalities’
Could a gender identity disorder lead one to fascism or Nazism? Internal Psyche External Masculine Feminine Behavior Masculine MM MF Feminine FM FF Hypothesis: Men insecure in their masculinity, and therefore would act internallymasculine to cover their insecurity, often maintaining rigid adherence to the most traditional norms |
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Sex Role Theories
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Miller and Swanson: M-F on a developmental scale
Parsons: M-F exists to fulfill society's two main necessities: production and reproduction: Women may be angry when they realize they are inferior to men or that their security depends upon a man; then they may reject the feminine role—and become a feminist. |
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Critiques of Sex Role Theory
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Sex role theory' has become the major sociological approach to the study of sex, gender and women, but during the 1970s an increasing number of criticisms have been leveled at work done from 'the role perspective'.
It was raised in order to understand structuring of sex (and age) lines, with women’s roles relegated to domestic spaces. It was see as: Too oppositional or binary Too supportive of political conservatism Too dependent on coercion And, power differences aren’t accounted for and individuals alone are assumed to be gendered—not institutions or roles. The use of the idea of “role” has had the effect of minimizing the importance of gender. Gender is not a role in the same sense of other roles, such as teacher, sister, or friend. Gender is deeper, less changeable, and infuses the more specific roles we play “masculinity” and “femininity” are too singular, constant, universal. What or race, class, ethnicity, sexuality, etc? Does not approach the subject of gender as relational; men and women exist across an aisle. Does not incorporate change or power. |
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Concern for Normative Constructions of Gender
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Concern for “normed” constructions against all others are measured, subordinated
Hegemonic |
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Power (inequality)
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Gender is about the power that men as a group have over women as a group, and it is about the power that some men have over other men, or some women over women.
Power is what produces gender differences in the first place. Power is perhaps the most controversial of the sociological perspectives on gender. (“What, men have all the power?”) This is where feminism frequently fails to resonate with men. Like gender, power is not the property of individuals but a property of group life, social life. |
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Gender as an Institution
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For sociologists, institutions are gendered.
They create gendered normative standards, express a gendered institutional logic, and are major factors in the reproduction of gender inequality. Institutions themselves express a logic that reproduces gender relations between men and women and the gender prder of hierarchy and power. Gendered individuals occupy a place in gendered institutions. A sociological perspective examines the ways in which gendered individuals interact with other gendered individuals in gendered institutions. See p. 104, Acker’s five gendered processes that mean that “advantages and disadvantages, exploitation and control, action and emotion, meaning and identity, are patterned through and in terms of a distinction between male and female, masculine and feminine.” |
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“Doing Gender”
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“a person’s gender is not simply an aspect of what one is, but more fundamentally, it is something that one does and does recurrently in interaction with others.”
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Brief History of the American Family
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Freedom are central concern, for men and women
Relationship between work and home, transformed The case of working-class women and women of color |
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The Family Romanticized
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Pre-WWII version
1940s, 1950s version (Talcott Parsons) Mythologized Concerns for women’s unhappiness Increasing diversity of form By 1980s, public supports largely withdrawn |
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Gendered Family
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The “demise” of the American Family
Families as social sites What is a family? Unofficially, officially History of the family The public/private split Power relations within families Struggle with structural issues and social oppression |
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Gendered Homes
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Gender and paid work
Gender and housework The Second Shift |
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Gendered Marriage
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Benefits to women and men?
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Gendered Parenting
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Gender socialization
Social definitions of masculinity and femininity Two gender cultures |
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Additional Issues Gendered Family
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Day Care
Teenage parenthood Men’s, fathers’ responsibility? Fatherlessness Divorce, rests on fatherlessness and gender inequality Different impacts of divorce by gender Child outcomes of divorce Child custody |
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Gay and Lesbian Families
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The health of such marriage
Child welfare within them longevity |
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Education almost always mean Formal Education
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Completing a formal curriculum on a variety of subject matter, resulting credentials
Age-specific lessons; more specialized at higher levels. The relational global perspective on education highlights the movement of students across borders, with varying benefits |
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The Social Construction of Education as Formal Schooling
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“What distinguishes formal education from the informal is its influence in the larger society.
It might seem cynical, but true: Education is part of the process of creating social stratification, justifying social inequalities, hiring, sorting, promoting; producing knowledge that contributes to economic advancements. Social inequalities are reproduced and contested throughout the educational experience. Explain |
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What is the “banking model” of education?
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System in which the student is viewed as an empty account to be filled by the teacher; education transforms students into receiving objects. It attempts to control thinking and action, leads men and women to adjust to the world, and inhibits their creative power.
Brazilian Educaton Paulo Freire, Ph.D. (1921-1997), author of Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Citizens need to learn to think critically. |
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Gendered Education
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Education is a key institutional site that produces and challenges gender and its intersections with other institutions.
Formal education Education is an important tool for equalizing economic and social opportunities. Education helps to maximize the dollars earned with employment. Variations in educational experience by historical time, place, and particular situation, i.e. race, class, gender, and other contexts (an intersectional perspective). Note changes in education completion and enrollment over time for different groups. Early in U.S. history, women were socialized via formal education to assume traditional women’s roles in the home and family, where men were socialized to assume industrialized and public roles, following religious ideologies. Women’s college education and college institutions were kept separate from men’s. “Ivy Leagues” (and Hopkins) were particularly egregious. |
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Educational Curricula
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Once education was detached from religious dogma, curricula became the center of a host of religious debates.
The insistence on prayer in schools, creationism, censorship, and abstinence-only sex education promotes a traditionalism that undermines women’s equality and freedom. How? |
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Intersection of Gender, Race, and Class
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Many advances made beyond the early education for women that was primarily focused on music, literature, and foreign language.
Education for ethnic minorities was designed to train them to serve the elite classes. Expanding educational opportunities can do much to change the configuration of gendered, raced, and classed practices in the academy, such as bringing marginal experiences closer to the center of educational life. |
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The “hidden curriculum
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The unstated values, beliefs, and assumptions that are embedded in educational subject matter
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chilly climate
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not just overt sexism or sexual harassment — which most people agree are unacceptable, at least in theory — but the myriad unconscious diminishing behaviors that seem to proliferate in any male-dominated environment, whether it be a classroom, a boardroom, an Internet chat room, World of Warcraft, or an international physics laboratory.
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self-fulfilling prophecy
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.....
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Engaged Pedagogy and Democratic Education
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Leads towards social justice and better world; not just spoon fed
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Does education improve health more for one sex than for the other?
Hypothesis 1 |
Resource Substitution:
Compared with men, women face more economic dependency, restricted opportunities, and less authority. People with the fewest resources (i.e. women vs. men) are most dependent on any one resource for their health. Women depend more heavily on education for health (lacking these other resources). Hypothesis 1 predicts that women benefit most from education. |
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Does education improve health more for one sex than for the other?
Hypothesis 2 |
Reinforcement of Advantage:
Advantaged groups (e.g. men) gain most from the resources they have, so that their resources multiply to reinforce their advantage. Hypothesis 2 predicts that men benefit most from education. |
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Does education improve health more for one sex than for the other?
Research Methods |
Measures:
(poor)health = physical impairment “Gender compares females (1) and males (0).” |
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Does education improve health more for one sex than for the other?
Results |
Interaction of education and sex
“The coefficient of the sex-by-education interaction term is negative and significant indicating that education’s negative association with physical impairment is greater for women than for men. (Negative association means high values on one variable are associated with low values on the other variable: high education is associated with low physical impairment.) “Disparities in health associated with disadvantaged status (womanhood) diminish at high levels of education”; “sex (gender) differences in impairment…become insignificant among persons who have been to college” (even as women have higher average levels of physical impairment overall. Education reduces physical impairment for both men and women, but more so for women. |
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Does education improve health more for one sex than for the other?
Conclusions |
“Education reduces physical impairment more for women than for men at any given time and over the life course.
However, Women with a high school degree or less have significantly higher level of physical impairment than their male counterparts. Women with a college degree share the same high levels of physical functioning as college-educated men. |
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"Legal" Definition of family in the US
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Nuclear Family
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True or False: Prior to Industrial Revolution in Western countries, families were economic units.
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True
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Family
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A social institution where gender-based inequalities are reflected on and reproduced. This supports the feminist view that family is not merely a private sphere, but is also political
• Family was originally an economic unit, started as an agrarian focus; family was very different • Love was not a factor at that time. children were taught to contribute to the household . love wasn’t the central agent • Marriage rates were high, not many laws, marriage=private |
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Thompson and Aramto: House work study, why house work?
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Everyone is involved in it some way or another
It is an ordinary, everyday, taken-for-granted activity that raises questions of gender |
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Ivy League Colleges and women
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Only began admitting women to undergraduate programs in the late 1960's and early 1970's
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1850s: INDUSTRIALIZATION
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men entered into work environment and the public life, men knew more
• women were at home, still private: this continues, men’s attention to work and attention to external agent increased |
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Pre-WWII era
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world teetering on uncertainty
Freedom became central concern for women and men Relationship between work and family transformed Case of working-class women and women of color Cult of True Womanhood: idea of white (borrowed from Victorian era) that her value=what she does for kids and husband: It became to oppress women |
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WWII
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women had to thrown out the dome of domesticity and women had to strap up, after WWII women were thrown back into dome and men took jobs
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40s and 50s
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heaven on Earth=SUBURBS, developed as way for veterans to own homes
Ex. Row houses, village context (borrowed from Europe), necessity (for heat and such), served its purpose Obvious: written ideas of women and women, as gendered separated family |
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Families have 2 functions: emotional and functional
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Man was believed to be better with functional while women were the emotional
Women were back in the home, AA women were still working, 60s-70s of black women: 50s and 60s: black women tried hang on to jobs (nursing, domestic, teaching) became oppressive for women, feminists stepped in in 50s and 60s: emotional chaos: domestic violence developed feminism allowing women to feel fulfilled in however they wanted to, breaking the shackles of domesticity women wanted to go back to public life |
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Defining of Family
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Very narrow on the US census:
Just beginning to include cohabitation Normal for minority families, value to intergenerational forms Families changing: structural issues and societal pressures/oppression: Ex. Development of the way in with the adoption process developed: Ex. Gay and lesbian marriages=money issue as well as a moral issue; yet also a money issue/benefits Policy debate usually about women and children and how they develop from divorce • Children of divorce fair well |
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1996: welfare reformat
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people (especially women) couldn't be on welfare forever, tone that answers to poverty in America=marriage; provided services for poor women who wanted to be married to have education on marriage
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“banking model” of education
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System in which student is viewed as an empty account to be filled by the teachers; education transforms students into receiving objects; attempts to control thinking
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Decent Work
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• Working conditions (rights and security)
• Equity what about meaningful work? • All determined why: • Protective legislature (1800s and early 1900s) What did this legislation seek to do? • By the 1970s, legislation also eventually remedied most of the existing problems • Affirmative action and revers discrimination issues • Economy: a system of production, distribution, and consumption of the goods and services viewed at the local, national, and international levels • Labor market • labor force • the informal economy is work not government-recognized or regulated (informal labor market or informal sector) |
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Wage Gap
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• difference between wage gap and salary gap, wages thought of as hourly
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Occupational Gender Segregation
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or occupational segregation, through segregation can along a number of different lines) Including that at the global level
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What is internal occupational segregation?
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• See p 150 and the discussion of Women and Women of the Corporation (1977)
• Sex-typed occupations: genders are segregated by occupation |
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Family leave
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unpaid leave of absence for family time given to workers, job frozen in time, not fired
• institutional policy |
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discrimination
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social injustice from prejudice and power:
an act of dislike and actively using power to create problem or hurt others |
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Gender Discrimination at Workplace Study
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Analyze discrimination cases
Coding for presence of gender stereotypes: descriptive: expressions of how women assumed to be prescriptive: expressions of women violating gender assumptions Conclusions Take showing result of discrimination: category, mobility, working conditions, sexual harassment, exclusion, expulsion Race composition of gender % of workplace, discrimination policy, if women experienced more than 1 discrimination, how work setting is gender integrated with policy function or lack of policy: Policies tend to support one gender over another |
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(In)visibility Blues Study
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• Invisibility: by virtue of category they are invisible, don’t take an interest in them being there: Particularly feel that way when they are a numerical minority
• Visibility: feeling hypervisible because they are the numerical minority • Blues: paradox of institutional racism • Habitus: setting in which you’re in, organizational or occupational • Psychosocial phenomenon: fusing of social realities with psychological realities/reaction • They believe the conspicuousness can be fused together with the inconspicuousness • Minority teachers in Baltimore city schools, interviewed in a focus group method ←qualitative method: Studied the recruitment and institutional process of recruitment by education heads in hiring minorities |
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The Second Shift
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Change in language: has probably been the most successful and most progressive of the ways to try and change society’s views of gendering and norms, “Ms” revolution worked at its attempt because it helped to take marital status out of a women’s
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The Holts
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• They try really hard and their marriage still doesn’t work
• The women is trying so hard to get to him and to get him to be there and feeling defeated at every turn • Avoidance: being able to spell out exactly what you want, scary that they go into their marriage when they think they are on equal footing but they are not • Try to avoid divorce at all costs • Deliberate conversation while they’re dating is necessary • The idea of the upstairs downstairs myth is great (can carry on this way and it will be alright), yet it doesn’t function • Tension is constantly built within the wife |
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The Delecortes
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• Religious ethic with the Delectores in their commitment to a standard “nuclear family” household and her idea of the virtuous women
• One who stuck close to her man and her home |
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The Tanagawa
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• It seems that they were so close to making it work yet the societal influences were affecting the way in which they were able to function as a couple and balance both aspects of their lives
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The Steins
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• Some people shouldn’t have children, if you aren’t committed to making the child the center of their lives, when the parents are so invested in their own lives and concerns than the children suffer
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Art Winfield
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tried very hard to balance his work and his life, he puts all of his energy and efforts into spending time with his son when he has the time during the day (3 hours) and he makes his son his world for that time he specifically gets to
People frequently have great influence from their parents and their upbringing |
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Born into the Brothels
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• The fathers were not present much in the household and in the lives of the children, it shows the desperation of this source of income and they had to maneuver to keep it going
• We don’t get in idea of the women of the giving of their bodies and the opinion of the men as well • The film was so focused on the art of the photograph and the access to that to the children but at the same time that took away from the mothers and their professions • Feminists believe that Prostitution should be legal so they should be able to do with their bodied what they want • Ironic that the women are using degrading language to the girls • Did it have something to do with the cast structure to the society, and that is the way that that layer of society was spoken to ? • The filmmaker could have consciously avoided that cast system discussion • You have to consider intersectionality and those contexts when looking and analyzing the film, need to make sure you aren’t putting your own biased opinions • The family units existed but the family of the brothel is a family structure in itself • Comparison was that there were options that were brought up for both focused parties (but just in the context of the films) as well as the push from the society and the families on the continuation of these expectations and profession, deviation of that was unnatural |
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The Family Speed-Up
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• Men have more control over what contributions they make to family life.
• Women do multiple things at once • Women devote proportionately more of their time at home to housework and less to childcare. • Mothers are more likely the villains. |
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Marriage in a stalled revolution
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• “Quarrels that erupt… result mainly from a friction between faster changing women and slower changing men, rates of change which themselves result from the different rates at which the industrial economy has drawn men and women into itself.”
• “Both the earlier entrance of men into the industrial economy and the later entrance of women have influenced the relations between men and men, especially their relations of marriage.” • The influx of women into the economy has not been accompanied by a cultural understanding of marriage and work that would make this transition smooth. • “This strain between the change in women and the absence of change in much else leads me to speak of a stalled revolution.” • What is stalled revolution? o Men and women have equal parts in both work and family. (It’s stalled because society hasn’t arrived at accepting that men and women are equal.) • “Gradually, I felt the need to explore how deep within each man and woman gender ideology goes. For some, men and women seemed egalitarian “on top” but traditional “underneath,” or the other way around.” • Gender strategy (pg. 15) Pursuing a gender strategy (pg. 17) • Traditional, transitional, egalitarian • “I discovered contradictions between what people said they believe about their martial roles and how they seemed to feel about those roles.” |
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Male and female dominated occupations
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• Wage gap
• Occupational gender segregation • Sex-typed occupations • Internal occupational segregation • Despite how it may appear, “there are women who have made slight inroads into some male dominated jobs, but women have by no means taken over men’s jobs.” • Occupational feminization |
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radical feminism
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dominating patriarchy is main form of demeaning the female matrafocality, matrilinearity (men could have made this rule) !
slavery could still have patriarchy dominating |
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womanism
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women of color feminism
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post-colonial feminism
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third world feminism
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post-modern feminism
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French feminism
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Thompson and Armato
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on the subject of health and illness, they argue that “a feminist sociological approach suggest that a comprehensive (health project) should strive to eliminate the causes of disease”and not just reach for early detection and enhanced treatment methods
! biomedical approach: health and illness is a personal issue, biological issue. relevant but incomplete picture. to just focus on this angle ! focus need also be on groups and social life disease often follow a gendered pattern, and the experience of disease is usually also gendered ! ! AIDS --> gay persons disease the privileging of white heterosexual men in the healthcare field |
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our bodies, ourselfs
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book about women’s health and sexuality produced by the nonprofit organization Our Bodies Ourselves (called the Boston WOmen’s Health Book Collective). First published in 1971, it contains information related to many aspects of women’s health and sexuality, including menopause, birth control, childbirth, sexual health, sexual orientation, gender identity, mental health, and general well-being
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Focus of health concerns
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medical conditions are “discovered” and then labeled as “diseases, illness” or in need of medical intervention (medicalization) medicalization has implications for the unequal power relations that develop between physicians and patients demographics of health care providers: numerical dominance of men in physician role and physician specialty role (incl. physician assistant role)
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maternity leave
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might not directly impact you, but may delay you from obtaining a specific title
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paradox of institutional racism
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habitist: setting in which you are in
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psychosocial phenomena
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fusing of social realities with psychological realities to be the victim of racism over and over again = psychological reaction minority teachers are put on a lot more committees
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