Memory

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Encoding

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process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel, into an enduring memory

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retrieval

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the process of bringing to the mind info that has been previously encoded & stored

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semantic encoding

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relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory

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visual imagery encoding

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storing new info by converting it to mental pictures

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organizational encoding

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categorizing info according to the relationships among a series of times

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sensory memory

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a type of storage that holds everything we can process with our senses but only for a few seconds or less

- very large capacity, very short time span

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iconic memory

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visual sensory memory

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echoic memory

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auditory sensory memory

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baddeley's model of working memory

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whatever you are paying attention to moves from your sensory memory into your working memory

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What limits does short-term memory have?

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- holds nonsensory info for more than a few seconds but less than a minute

- can only hold about 7 pieces of meaningful info at a time

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rehearsal

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keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it

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chunking

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combining small pieces of info into larger chunks to more easily store them in short-term memory

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working memory

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active maintenance of information in short-term storage

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visuospatial sketchpad

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- mental imagery

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phonological loop

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- internal dialogue

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central executive

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the boss of your brain, that controls the balance between the visual sketchpad and the phonological loop.

- knows what your goals are and will dole out attention accordingly

- helps transfer sensory memory into working memory

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what parts of the brain does the central executive depend on

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regions in the frontal lobe that are important for controlling & manipulating info

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What part of the brain supports working memory

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the prefrontal cortex

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what does the prefrontal cortex care most about? When it is most active?

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- holding on to working memories

- during the "delay," when you are trying to remember the info

- eg. show monkey treat, put behind door, ask them to choose where treat is. PFC most active during delay when door is closed

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What can augument working memory?

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domaine infusion

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What happens if you cool the prefrontal cortex with a cooling pack?

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- working memory performance goes to chance (50% chance of being right if there are 2 options)

- simulates what it would be like not having a PFC

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Craig and Lockhart

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discovered the idea of level of processing

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Level of processing (LoP)

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- new memories are more accessible (easier to be retrieved) if they are linked to ideas that we already knew

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Limits on long-term memory

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- no known capacity limits

- can hold info for hours, days, weeks, years..

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knowledge modality

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information crosses the senses

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how doe retrieval of long term memories (LTMs) occur?

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activation of the LTMs and placement into working memory for conscious consideration

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state-dependant retrieval

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retrieval can be better if the state you are retrieving in matches the state you encoded in

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transfer-appropriate processing

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memory is more likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match

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flashbulb memory

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episodic memory that is very emotional and vivid, often associated with trauma, PTSD, and almost exclusively with negative experiences

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consolidation

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the process by which memories become stable in the brain

- makes memories more resistant to disturbance

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when are long-term memories most sensitive to disturbance?

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- right after encoding when they exist in a fairly fragile state

- during retrieval

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why do you often not remember why you have a head trauma (eg.don't remember getting hit in the head)

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- injury prevents the consolidation of the memory

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2 types of consolidation

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- happens over seconds/minutes

- happens over days/weeks/months, involving transfer of info from hippocampus to a more permanent storage in the cortex

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reconsolidation

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- memories become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, requiring them to be consolidated again

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what part of a neuron does memory storage depend critically on?

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neuron synapses because neurotransmitters strengthen the connection between two neurons, making it easier for them to transmit to each-other next time

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what does long-term storage involve at the neural level?

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- the growth of new synaptic connections between neurons

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where doe synaptic strengthening due to strengthening of memories occur?

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in the hippocampus

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Long-term potentiation

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- the process of creating new memories, neurons from connections changing the physical structure of the hippocampus

- occurs in the hippocampus

- can be induced rapidly and last for a long time

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Donald Hebb quote

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"neurons that fire together, wire together"

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retrieval cue

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external info associated with stored information that helps bring it to mind

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the encoding specificity principle

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- a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which information was originally encoded

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retrieval-induced forgetting

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a process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items b/c you have supressed competing items while trying to remember that one item

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patient Greg

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- unable to make new memories, but some of the things that he experienced still left a mark on him

- didn't remember that his dad died, but he was sad for a few years after anyway

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declarative/explicit memory

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- a memory that you can talk about easily

- when you consciously or intentionally retrieve past experiences

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episodic memory

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- a declaritive memory that has context (what happened, when it happened)

- collection of past experiences that happened in a particular place at a particular time

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semantic memory

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- a declarative memory that you don't know the context in which you learnt it

- facts and general knowlege

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what two related processes heavily rely on episodic memory?

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- remembering out past experiences

- imagining future experiences

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What does the fact that people with amnesia can still acquire new procedural memories suggest?

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maybe the hippocampus isn't necessary for implicit procedural memory

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non-declarative/implicit memory

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things you remember but can't verbalize

- when past experiences influence later behaviour and performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection

- not consciously remembered, but their presence is implied by our actions

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example of an implicit memory in patient H.M.

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- H.M. gradually improved after many times repeating a tracking task even though he never remembered doing the task before

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procedural memory

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a non-declarative/implicit memory that is the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things

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Priming

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an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus

- warming up memories makes it easier to retrieve them

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perceptual priming

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reflects implicit memory for the sensory features of an item

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conceptual priming

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reflects implicit memory for the meaning of a word or how you would use an object

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What happened to patient H.M. that caused brain damage?

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- brain injury from falling off bike caused extreme seizures, docs removed medial temporal lobes including the hippocampus

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what does MTL stand for

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medial temporal lobes

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what types of amnesia did patient H.M. suffer?

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- profround anterograde amnesia (can't encode)

- could do simple memory tasks,but couldn't transfer to long-term memory

- partial retrograde amnesia (temporally graded) but not full loss of past memories

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what did we learn from the fact that HM didn't lose all his long term memories?

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- hippocampal area is critical for putting new info into long-term storage, but not so much for long-term memory itself

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what does it mean that retrograde amnesia is temporally graded?

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- the most recent memories are lost first and go back from your accident

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How does "learning without remembering" apply to patient HM?

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- didn't remember doing the mirror-tracing task everyday, but slowly improved day by day

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sequence learning

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progressive improvement after repeating a task multiple ties

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could patient HM still form declarative or non-declarative memories?

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non-declarative only

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anterograde amnesia

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inability to transfer new information from short-term store into the long-term store

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retrograde amnesia

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inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or surgery

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how did clive wearing get his brain damage

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herpes virus that attacked his brain & severely damaged the temporal lobes

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what type of memory impairments did Clive Wearing have?

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retrograde & anterograde amnesia

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what causes a memory to get stronger? (neuronal level)

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neurons co-activating creating a physical strengthening causes a memory strengthening

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the 7 sins of memory

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- transience

- absentmindedness

- blocking

- memory misattribution

- suggestibility

- bias

- persistence

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Transience

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forgetting what occurs with the passage of time, occurs in the storage phase of memory --> after an experience has been encoded but before it has been retrieved

- a gradual switch from specific to more general memories

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retroactive interference

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situations in which information learned later impairs memory of information acquired earlier

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proactive interference

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situations in which information learned earlier impairs memory of information acquired later

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absentmindedness

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a lapse in attention that results in memory failure

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prospective memory

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remembering to do things in the future

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blocking

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failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to retrieve it --> a failure in retrieval

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memory misattribution

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assigning a memory or an idea to the wrong source

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source memory

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recall of when, where, and how info was acquired

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what can cause deja vu?

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- memory misattribution

- damage to frontal lobes

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false recognition

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a feeling of familiarity about something that hasn't occured before

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suggestibility

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the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections

- can cause you to develop false memories

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bias

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- the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences

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persistence

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the intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget --> usually after traumatic events

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what part of the brain is important in memories of highly emotional experiences?

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the amygdala

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Differences in a person with a normal vs. damaged amygdala

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- normal: amygdala has increased activity to fearful stimuli, people remember emotional events better than nonemotional

- damaged amygdala: remember emotional events the same ammount as non emotional events

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what type of receptors are densely packed in the hippocampus

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NMDA receptors for glutamate

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Where do memories live & the progression

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Hippocampus --> transferred to the cortex --> eventually just live in the cortex, indepentant of the hippocampus

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gnostic hypothesys

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a given concept is represented by one neuron (grandmother cells)

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Ensemble coding hypothesis

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many cells collectively help to represent the different components of a concept

- leverages areas of the brain that are already developed in viewing new objects and new peoplw

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what is the lymbic system important for

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processing emotions

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Dementia

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an acquired persistent impairement of intellectual function with a compromise in memory as well as two other cognitive domains (ie. language)

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2 types of neurodegenerative dementia

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- huntington's disease

- Alzheimer's

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Cognitive defects of Alzheimer's

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- anterograde & retrograde amnesia, starting with anterograde and then retrograde going back in time

- language defects: anomic, empty, circumlocutory

- visuospatial disturbance

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Anomia

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forgetting the names to things you shouldn't forget the names of

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Circumlocutory

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talking in circles

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visuospatial disturbance

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- familiar spaces no longer feel familiar

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Brain changes in Alzheimer's disease

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- temporal lobes and parietal lobes atrophy majorly

- black space where there used to be brain

- neurofibrillary tangles

- beta-amyloid plaques

- degeneratio of the basal forebrain cholinergic system

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what does degeneration of the basal forebrain cholinergic system cause?

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- acetylcholine can no longer be created

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what other disease is alziehmer's suggested to be linked to?

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diabetes

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sundowner syndrome

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symptoms start to exaggerate after sundown. Agitation, restlessness, confusion, wandering, screaming