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121 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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• Reductionism
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Assumes the aim of science is to reduce each explanation to the level below
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• Verbal learning approach
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Using a limited range of methods that typically involved remembering lists of words or nonwords
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• Gestalt Psychology
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attempted to apply ideas developed in the study of perception to understanding human memory
o Emphasized importance of internal representation rather than observable stimuli and responses |
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• Schemas
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Proposed by Bartlett to explain how knowledge of the world is structured and influences the way in which new information is stored and recalled
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models
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method o expressing a theory more precisely, allowing predictions to be made and tested
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Modal model
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o Atkinson and Shiffrin
model of the operation of the human memory |
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• Sensory memory
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Brief storage of information within a specific modality
-Milliseconds - lights, sounds, smells, touch, etc. |
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• Iconic memory
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Brief storage of visual information
o Ex: Sparklers |
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masking
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perception and/or storage of a stimulus is influenced by events occuring immediately before presentation or more commonly after
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• Short term memory
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temporary storage of small amounts of material over brief delays; retention of small amounts of material over a few days
o Not limited to verbal material (visual, spatial as well, and some smell and touch, but much less) |
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• Working memory
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temporary maintenance and manipulation of information, and this is helpful in performing many complex tasks
Memory system that underpins our capacity to “keep things in mind” when performing complex tasks |
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• Long term memory
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System assumed to store information over long periods of time
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• Explicit/declarative memory
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Open to intentional retrieval, whether based on recollecting personal events (episodic memory) or facts (semantic memory)
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• Implicit/nondeclarative memory
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Retrieval of information from long term memory through performance rather than explicit conscious recall or recognition
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• Semantic memory
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Stores accumulative knowledge of the world
o (how society works, what to do when you enter a restaurant, etc.) |
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• Episodic memory
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System assumed to underpin capacity to remember specific events
o Remember specific single episodes/events |
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• Mental time travel
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Term coined by Tulving to emphasize the way in which episodic memory allows us to relive the past and use this information to imagine the future
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• Classical conditioning
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Neutral stimulus (bell) that is paired repeatedly with a response-evoking stimulus (meat powder) will come to evoke that response (salivation)
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• Priming-
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Presentation of an item influences that processing of a subsequent item, either making it easier or more difficult to process
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• Electroencephalogram
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-(EEG) Device for recording electric potentials of the brain through a series of electrodes placed on the scalp
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• Event related potentials
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-(ERP) Method using EEG, where the reaction of the brain to stimuli is tracked over time
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• Neuroimaging
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methods where the brain can be studied, either its anatomical structure or its operation
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• Positron emission tomography
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-(PET) Method where radioactively labeled substances are introduced into bloodstream and monitored to measure physiological activation
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• Magnetic resonance imaging
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(MRI)-Method of brain imaging that relies on detecting changes induced by a powerful magnetic field
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• Magnetoencephalography
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(MEG)-System where the activity of neurons within the brain is detected through the tiny magnetic fields that their activity generates
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• Digit span
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Maximum number of sequentially presented digits that can reliably be recalled in the correct order
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• Working memory span
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Applied to a range of complex memory span tasks in which simultaneous storage and processing is required
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• Chunking
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Combining a number of items into a single chunk typically on the basis of long term memory
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• Peterson task
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Short term forgetting task in which a small amount of material is tested after a brief delay filled by a rehearsal preventing task
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• Free recall
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Method where participants are presented with a sequence of items, which they are subsequently required to recall in any order they wish
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• Long term recency
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Tendency for the last few items to be well recalled under conditions of long term memory
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• Phonological loop
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Term applied by Baddeley and Hitch to the component of their model responsible for the temporary storage of speech-like information
Holds/manipulates speech based information |
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Two components of phonological loop
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Short term store-limited in capacity; items decay in a few seconds
Articulatory rehearsal process |
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• Phonological similarity effect
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Tendency for immediate serial recall of verbal material to be reduced, when the items sound the same
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• Articulatory suppression
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Technique for disrupting verbal rehearsal by requiring participants to continuously repeat a spoken item
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• Word length effect
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Tendency for verbal memory span to decrease when longer words are used
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• Nonsense syllables
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prounounceable but meaningless consonant-vowel-consonant items designed to study learning without the complicating factor of meaning
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• Irrelevant sound effect
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Tendency for verbal STM to be disrupted by fluctuating sounds, including speech and music
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• Double dissociation-
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Used in neuropsychology when two patient groups show opposite patterns of deficit (Ex: normal STM and impaired LTM versus normal LTM and impaired STM)
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• Corsi block tapping
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Visuo-spatial counterpart to digit span involving an array of blocks that the tester taps in a sequence and the patient attempts to copy
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• Patient PV
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deficit in phonological STM
o Intellect and language unimpaired o Digit span of two |
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• Patient KF
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Opposite memory problem of HM
o Had a digit span of two items |
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• Patient LH
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impaired in capacity to remember colors or shapes
o Excellent memory for spatial information (locations, routes) |
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• Patient LE
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Brain damage as result of lupus
oable to drive unfamiliar route between home and lab where her skills were tested o Lost capacity to visualize; Couldn’t remember what earlier sculptures looked like and changed her style |
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• Patient MV
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Damaged right front lobe after a stroke
o Visual memory normal o Impaired on the Corsi block tapping and on a task requiring STM for imagining a path through the matrix |
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• Visuo-spatial STM
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retention of visual and or spatial information over brief periods of time
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Levels of processing
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• Craig and Lockhart-items that are more deeply processed will be better remembered
o Learning depends on the way in which material is processed rather than time in short term storage |
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• Phonological loop
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Component of Baddeley and Hitch’s model responsible for the temporary storage of speech like information
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• Visuo spatial sketchpad
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Component of B&Hs model that is assumed to be responsible for the temporary maintenance of visual and spatial information
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• Semantic coding
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Processing an item in terms of its meaning, hence relating it to other information in long term memory
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• Nonword repetition test
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Test whereby participants hear an attempt to repeat back nonwords that gradually increase in length
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• Episodic buffer
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component of the B&H working memory model, which assumes a code, allowing various components of working memory to interact with long term memory
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• Supervisory attentional system
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component of the model proposed by Norman and Shallice to account for the attentional control of action
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• Confabulation
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Recollection o something that did not happen
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• Binding
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Term used to refer to the linking of features into objects (color red, shape square, into a red square) or evens into coherent episodes
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Inhibition
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mechanisms that suppress other activities.
where memory for an item is impaired by competition from earlier or later items |
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• Resource sharing
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Use of limited attentional capacity to maintain two or more simultaneous activities
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• Task switching
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limited capacity system maintains activity on two or more tasks by switching between them
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• Long term working memory
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concept proposed by Ericsson and Kintsch to account for the way in which long term memory can be used as a working memory to maintain complex cognitive activity
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• Spatial working memory-
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temporarily retains information regarding spatial location
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• Object memory
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system that temporarily retains information concerning visual features such as color and shape
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According to Pissoni, memory is...
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a record that changes and gets modified
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5 goals for p461
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PErsonally relevant
Increase scientific literacy Multiple memory systems view Automatic vs controlled processing Useful after graduation |
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Factors that improve learning and memory
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Organizational factors
Depth of processing Generation effect Retrieval/testing effect Spacing effect |
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Type I rehearsal
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PAssive-Reading over and over
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Type II rehearsal
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ACtive-Better
Taking notes, talking, doing, etc. |
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Patient MD
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Lost fruits and veggies
Couldn't identify fruit or veggies but could identify other things |
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Patient AJ
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Woman that was like a human video camera
Had an autobiographical memory |
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Patient S
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Had such good memory he couldn't forget
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4 aspects of memory
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Encoding/registration
Storage/retention Retrieval/finding Forgetting |
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Textbook science
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Knowledge in the textbooks
Agrees, replicated, confirmed, published |
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Frontier science
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Wild, untamed
Important but irrelevant Either wrong or irrelevant to future research |
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Primary memory
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conscious short term memory, working memory
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Secondary memory
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Long term permanent memory
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Encoding
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How memories are formed
Acquisition, Registration |
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STorage
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Where are memories stored
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Retrieval
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How are memories retrieved?
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Forgetting
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How are memories lost
Interference vs decay |
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Declarative memory
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Facts and events
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Memory metaphor: Structural view
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Spatial metaphors
Memory as receptable, container Spatial storage and search metaphors Retrieval viewed as search process |
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Memory metaphor: Proceduralist view
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Study processes that create, maintain, and recreate memories
State dependent learning Encoding specificity principle |
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Memory metaphors: Functionalist approach
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Discover and describe general principles of memory
Multiple memory systems Varieties of memory |
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Organic amnesia
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Neurobiological basis (HM damage to brain)
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Functional amnesia
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Psychological basis (No reason FOUND)
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Anterograde amnesia
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Loss of memory for events and experiences occuring subsequent to the amnesia causing trauma. INCAPABLE OF FORMING NEW MEMORIES
Ex: HM, Clive, 50 First Dates |
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Retrograde amnesia
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Loss of memory for events/experiences occuring in a period of time before the amnesia causing trauma; FAILURE OF ABILITY TO RETRIEVE OR RECALL INFO rather than true loss of that information
More rare |
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Purpose of hippocampus
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Transfer info between short term/ primary/conscious memory to long term memory
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Theoretical significance of HM
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1-distinction between primary and secondary memory
2-Disproved ideas of mass action in the brain 3-more than one kind of memory 4-Memory is not unitary homogenous system 5-Memory=multiple systems working together |
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Echoic memory
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Early, fast, automatic storage equivalent of iconic memory for auditory information
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Stimulus persistence
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Refers to sensory memory-Looks/sounds like the physical signal that's no longer present
After image |
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Information persistence
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More durable (after the afterimage) memory trace that continues to be available from the stimulus for a short period of time after the signal is no longer present (~30 sec)
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Perceptual constancy
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Perceptual world remains the same to an observer despite alterations in sensory input
Ex: rotate a book, it's the same book |
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Perceptual invariance
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Stimulus characteristic of human perception that doesn't change
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Sensation
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feeling/awareness of conditions in or outside of the body produced by the stimulation of some receptor
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Perception
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Processes that give coherence and unity to sensory input
Physical, sensory, cognitive, affective components |
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Two important properties of STM
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Limited capacity
Rapid forgetting |
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Major human memory systems
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Perceptual representation systems
Short term memory Semantic memory Episodic memory Procedural memory |
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Procedural memory
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Nondeclarative memory-Skills, habits, motor schema
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Immediate memory
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ability to remember a small amount of information over a few seconds
Part of STM |
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Active memory
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Part of STM
Present state of mind Large individual differences |
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Conscious memory
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Part of STM
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Class data for
digit letter word |
7.6
6.1 5.4 |
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Primacy effect
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First few items on a list enjoy a recall advantage
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Recency effect
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Last few items in a list are well recalled
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Free recall
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Recall items in any order
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Factors influencing LTM
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Presentation rate (slower better)
Word frequency (more familiar easier) Imageability (more visualizable easier to recall) Age (Younger better recall) Physiological state (drugs/alcohol bad) |
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Patient NA
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Penetrating brain injury with a miniature fencing foil
affects verbal material |
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Patient SF
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difficulty with new learning
poor at learning verbal material did not appear to be forgetful and gave no sign of difficulty with attention or language |
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Patient VP
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Not effected by the size of the memory set
Could tell whether words rhymed no evidence for transfer of color, shape or size, there was evidence for transfer of word information |
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Serial recall
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Recalling items in order
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Proactive interference
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Prior experiences have a detrimental effect on subsequential experiments
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Sternberg's Study
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Presented with list of numbers
Given a number Respond yes or no as to if number was in the set |
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BRIEF-A
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Behavioral Rating Inventory for Executive Functioning For Adults
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Evidence for phonological loop
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Phonological similarity effect
Articulatory suppression Irrelevant speech Word length Talker variability Modality |
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Cowan's embedded process model
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Concreteness effects (abstract vs concrete)
Word frequency effects Set size effects on memory span |
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Central executive
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Controls attention
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Visuo-spatial sketchpad
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Holds and manipulates visual and spatial information dividing tasks between:
-Visual cache -Inner scribe |
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If a search is serial, when does it terminate?
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Self terminating search
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Self terminating search
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One that stop when item sought is found
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Exhaustive search
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Continues searching remaining items in memory even after target item is found
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If parallel search, set size should...
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NOT affect retrieval time
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