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195 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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electrolyte
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mineral salt (sodium, potassium, and calcium) that carries an electrical charge in solution
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glucagon
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hormone produced by pancreatic alpha cells that stimulates the liver to change stored glycogen to glucose (opposes insulin)
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ductless glands of endocrine system
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pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreatic, pineal, thymus glands, and ovaries and testis
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glucose
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simple sugar that is the end product of carb digestion
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insulin
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hormone produced by pancreatic beta cells that allows body cells to use glucose for energy or store it in the liver as glycogen
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sympathomimetic
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agent that mimics the effects of the sns
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The master gland
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pituitary!
adenohypophysis (triggered by hypothalamus) - produces adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, growth hormone, lutenizing hormone, prolactin, and thyroid stim (TSH) neurophypophysis stores and secretes two hormones produced by hypothalamus: antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin |
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Thyroid gland
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Calcitonin
Thyroid hormone - thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) |
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calcitonin
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Ca+ levels... decreases reabsorption of calcium and phosphate from bones to blood
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thyroxine and triiodothyronine
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increases energy production from all food types
increases rate of protein synthesis |
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ACTH
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adrenal cortex - promotes secretion of corticosteroids, esp. cortisol
from anterior pituitary |
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FSH
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anterior pituitary - follicle-stimulating
ovaries - stimulates egg production, increases secretion of estrogen testes - stimulates sperm production |
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Growth Hormone
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from anterior pituitary - GH or somatotropin
regulates growth of bone, muscle, and other body tissues increases use of fats for energy hyposecretion causes dwarfism hypersecreation during childhood causes gigantism, during adulthood causes acromegaly |
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luteinizing hormone
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from adenohypophysis - LH
ovaries - promotes ovulation, production of estrogen and progesterone testes - secretion of testosterone |
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prolactin
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from adenohypophysis - PRL
breast - in conjunction with other hormones, promotes lactation hypersecretion in nursing mothers causes excesssive secretion of milk (galactorrhea) |
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thyroid-stimulating hormone
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from adenohypophysis (TSH or thyrotropin)
thyroid gland - stimulates secretion of thyroid hormones |
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antidiuretic hormone
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from neurohypophysis - ADH
kidney - increases water reabsorption hyposecretion - diabetes insipidus hyper - syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone |
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oxytocin
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from neurohypophysis
uterus - uterine contractions, labor breast - promotes milk secretion from mammary glands |
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Parathyroid glands
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posterior surface of lobes of thyroid
secretes PTH |
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Parathyroid hormone
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from parathyroid glands - PTH
bones - increases reabsorption of calcium and phosphate from bone to blood kidneys - increases calcium absorption and phosphate excretion small intestine - increases absorption of calcium and phosphate hypo - tetany hyper - osteitis fibrosa cystica |
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Adrenal glands
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aka suprarenal
Cortex - mineralcorticoids (aldosterone), glucocorticoids (cortisol), sex hormones (androgens, estrogens, progestins) Adrenal medulla - epinephrine and norepinephrine |
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Glucocorticoids
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from Adrenal cortex
mainly cortisol body cells - promote gluconeogenesis; regulate metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, and help depress inflammatory and immune responses |
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Mineralocorticoids
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from adrenal cortex
mainly aldosterone kidneys - increase blood levesl of sodium and decrease blood levels of potassium in the kidneys |
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Sex hormones from adrenal cortex
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androgens, estrogens, or related steroid hormones produced by the ovaries, testes, and adrenal cortices
in females, possibly responsible for female libido and source of estrogen after menopause hypersecretion of adrenal androgen in females - virulism hyper of adrenal estrogen and progestin in males - feminization hypo - no known effect |
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epinephrine and norepinephrine
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from adrenal medulla
sns target organs - hormone effects mimic sns activation (sympathomimetic), increase metabolic rate, heart rate, and raise bp by promoting vasoconstriction hypo - no known effect hyper - prolonged fight/flight and hypertension |
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Pancreas
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endocrine and exocrine gland. exocrine - digestive secretions from pancreas to small intestines
endocrine through islets of Langerhans: glucagon - alpha cells Insulin - beta cells |
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insulin target organs and functions and disorders
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tissue cells - lowers blood glucose lvl by accelerating glucose transport into cells and the use of that glucose for energy production
hypo - diabetes mellitus hyper - hyperinsulinism |
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glucagon target organ and functions and disorders
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liver and blood - raises blood glucose lvl by accellerating conversion of glycogen into glucose in the liver (glycogenolysis) and other nutrients into glucose in the liver (gluconeogenesis) and releaseing glucose into blood (glycogen to glucose)
a deficiency may cause persistently low blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia) |
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Pineal gland
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posterior part of third ventricle of brain
... secretes melatonin? may inhibit activities of ovaries |
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adren/o
adrenal/o |
adrenal glands
adrenomegaly - enlargement of adrenal glands |
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calc/o
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calcium
hypercalcemia - excessive calcium in blood |
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crin/o
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secrete
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gluc/o
glyco/o glycos/o |
sugar, sweetness
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homeo
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same, alike
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kal/i
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potassium
kalemia - potassium in the blood |
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pancreat/o
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pancreas
pancreatomy - incision of pancreas |
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thym/o
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thymus gland
thymoma - tumor of |
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thryo
thyroid/o |
thyroid gland
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toxic/o
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poison
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-crine
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secrete
endocrine -secrete within |
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-dipsia
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thirst
polydipsia - excessive thirst |
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-gen
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forming, producing, origin
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-toxic
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pertaining to poison
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-uria
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urine
glycosuria - glucose in the urine |
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eu-
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good, normal
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exo-
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outside, outward
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hyper-
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excessive, above normal
hyperglycemia |
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cretinism
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hypothyroidism in infants
leads to mental retardation, impaired growth, low body temp, and abnormal bone formations |
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myxedema
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hypothyroidism that develops during adulthood
edema, low blood levels of T3 and T4, weight gain, cold intolerance, fatigue, depression, muscle or joint pain, and sluggishness |
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Graves disease
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hyperthyroidism
elevated metabolic rate, abnormal weight loss, excessive perspiration, muscle weakness and emotional instability exophthalamos - bulging eyes from edematous swelling goiter |
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toxic goiter
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hyperthyroidism
from excessive TSH from pituitary? enlarged thyroid gland |
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hypoparathyroidism
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from parathyroid dysfunciton or elevated blood calcium levels
effect - decreased blood calcium level (hypocalcemia), causing muscle twitches and spasms (tetany) |
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hyperparathyroidism
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caused by benign tumor
increased PTH secreation demineralization of bones (osteitis fibrosa cystica), making them porous (osteoporosis) and highly susceptible to fracture and deformity causes calcium deposits in the kidneys Disorder known as von Recklinghausen disease when generalized and all bones are affected. renal symptoms and kidney stones (nephrolithiasis) may develop |
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Addison Disease
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deficiency of cortical hormones
Body can't properly handle internal and external stress Sodium and potassium metabolsism disturbed - severe chronic dehydration muscle weakness, anorexia, gastrointestinal symptoms, fatigue, hypoglycemia, hypotension, low blood sodium (hyponatremia) and high serum potassium (hyperkalemia) With early treatment (adrenocortical hormone therapy), prognosis is excellent. Untreated... progressive deterioration |
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Cushing syndrome
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excessive cortisol, Adrenocorticotropic hormone, or both circulating in blood
from long-term steroid drugs, adrenal tumor, cushing disease - pituitary disorder caused by hypersecretion of ACTH from an adenoma alters carb and protein metabolism and electrolyte balance. Overproduction of mineralcorticoids and glucocorticoids causes blood glucose concentration to remain high, depleting tissue protein. Edema, weight gain, structural changes (moon shaped face, exaggerated head and trunk and pencil thin arms and legs), fatigue, high blood pressure, excessive hair growth |
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Pheochromocytoma
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neoplasm in adrenal medulla
excessive epinephrine and norepinephrine high blood pressure, rapid heart rate, stress, fear, palpitations, headachs, visual blurring, muscle spasms, and sweating |
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Most common pancreatic disorder
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most common - diabetes mellitus
impaired carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism due to insufficient production of insulin or the body's inability to use insulin properly fat metabolism produces ketones, which enter blood (ketosis) without insulin - hyperglycemia. Beyond level tolerated by kidneys, glucose "spills" into the urine (glucosuria), and is expelled along with electrolytes, particularly sodium -> muscle weakness and fatigue. Cellular starvation results and leads to hunger and an increased appetite (polyphagia) genetics and environmental factors type 1 and type 2 |
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Type 1 diabetes
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usually in children and young adults
insufficient insulin treat with balanced diet, exercise, and insulin injections may use insulin pump |
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Type 2 diabetes
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most common, onset later in life, though obesity is increasing prevalence in children
Deficient in producing sufficient insulin, or body's cells are resistant to insulin action in target tissues hyperglycemia - damage kidneys, eyes, nerves, or heart treat - exercise, diet, weight loss, if needed insulin or oral antidiabetic agents |
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Complications of diabetes
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primary - diabetic ketoacidosis (diabetic coma, too little insulin)
secondary - diabetic retinopathy (vision loss) and nephropathy (renal insufficiency) Gestational diabetes - develop inability to metabolize carbs during pregnancy, usually resolves after childbirth |
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Pancreatic cancer
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epithelial tumors - adenocarcinomas
Pain in head, body, or tail of organ 4th leading cause of cancer death in US |
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Pituitary Tumors
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some cause excessive production of hormones
others restrict normal function, lower hormones most are noncancerous - adenomas can compress nearby nerves, resulting in vision problems Treatment - remove tumor, restore hormone levels or radiation therapy to shrink tumor |
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Thyroid carcinoma
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in general - radiation, prolonged TSH stimulation, familial disposition, and chronic goiter are presdisposing factors
large tumor - hypothyroidism sometims stimulates production - hyperthyroidism surgical removal, radiation, or both |
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acromegaly
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rare hormonal disorder in adulthood, usually caused by a GH-secreting pituitary tumor (adenoma) that promotes the soft tissue and bones of the face, hands, and feet to grow larger than normal
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diuresis
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increased formation and secretion of urine
occurs in diabetes mellitus, diabetes insipidus, and acute renal failure |
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glycosuria
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abnormal amount of glucose in the urine
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Graves disease - short definition
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multisystem autoimmune disorder characterized by pronounced hyperthyroidism usually associated with enlarged thyroid gland and exophthalamos (eyeball protrusion)
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Hirsutism
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excessive distribution of body hair, esp in women
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hypercalemia
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condition in which the calcium level in the blood is higher than normal
overactivity in parathyroid gland/s, or cancer, medical disorders, medications, and excessive use of calcium and vit D supplements |
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hyperkalemia
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higher potassium level in blood
potentially life threatening - cardiac arrest and death |
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hypervolemia
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abnormal increase in volume of blood plasma
from retention of sodium and water by kidneys |
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Hyponatremia
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low sodium level in blood
excessive fluid |
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insulinoma
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tumor of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas
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obesity
morbid obesity |
excessive accumulation of fat that exceeds the body's skeletal and physical standards, usually 20 % above ideal
morbid - BMI of 40 or greater, 100 lb or more over ideal |
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panhypopituitiarism
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total pituitary impairment that brings about a progressive and general loss of hormone activity
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pheochromocytoma
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small chromaffin cell tumor, usually located in adrenal medulla, causing elevated heart rate and blood (pressure?)
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thyroid storm
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crisis of uncontrolled hyperthyroidism caused by the release into the bloodstream of an increased amount of thyroid hormone, also called thyroid crisis or thyrotoxic crisis
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virilism
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masculinization or development of male secondary sex characteristics in a woman
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exophthalmometry
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measures the degree of forward displacement of the eyeball (exophthalmos) as seen in Graves disease
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parathyroidectomy
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excision of one or more parathyroid glands, usually to control hyperparathyroidism
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transsphenoidal hypophysectomy
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endoscopic procedure to surgically remove a pituitary tumor through an incision in the sphenoid sinus without disturbing brain tissue
treat Cushing syndrome due to tumor |
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thymectomy
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excision of the thymus gland
treatment of myasthenia gravis |
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Thyroidectomy
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excision of the entire thyroid gland, part, or a single lobe
for goiter, tumors, or hyperthyroidism |
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fasting blood sugar
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test that measures glucose levels in a blood sample following a fast of at least 8 hours
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glucose tolerance test
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GTT - screening test in which a dose of gluocose is administered and blood samples are taken afterward at regular intervals to determine how quickly glucose is cleared from the blood
diagnose pre-diabetes and gestational diabetes |
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insulin tolerance test
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ITT - diagnostic test in which insulin is injected into the vein to assess pituitary function, adrenal funciton, and determine insulin sensitivity
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thyroid function test
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TFT - test that detects an increase or decrease in thyroid funciton
lvls of TSH, T3, and T4 |
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total calcium test
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measures calcium to detect bone and parathyroid disorders
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computed tomography
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CT
imaging technique that rotates an x-ray emitter around the area to be scanned and measures the intensity of transmitted rays from different angles cross-sectional image |
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magnetic resonance imaging
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MRI
noninvasive imaging technique that uses radio waves and a strong magnetic field, rather than an x-ray beam, to produce multiplanar cross-sectional images good soft-tissue contrast, multiple plane views |
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radioactive iodine uptake
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RAIU
administration of a radioactive iodine in pill or liquid form is used as a tracer to test how quickly the thyroid gland takes up iodine from the blood assess thyroid function |
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thyroid scan
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images of the thyroid gland are obtained after oral or intravenous administration of a small dose of radioactive iodine
id nodules and tumors |
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antidiuretics
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reduce or control excretion of urine
vasopressin |
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antithyroids
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treat hyperthyroidism by impeding the formation of T3 and T4 hormone
methimazole strong iodine solution |
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corticosteroids
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replace hormones lost in adrenal insuficiency
cortisone hydrocortisone |
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growth hormone replacements
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increase skeletal growth in children and growth hormone deficiencies in adults
somatropin |
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insulins (drugs)
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lower blood glucose by promoting its entrance into body cells and converting glucose to glycogen
regular insulin NPH insulin insulin aspart |
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oral antidiabetics
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treat type 2 diabetes mellitus by stimulating the pancreas to produce more insulin and decrease peripheral resistance to insulin
glipizide, metformin |
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thyroid supplements
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replace or supplement thyroid hormones
levothyroxine liothyronine |
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DKA
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diabetic ketoacidosis
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FBS
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fasting blood sugar
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HRT
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hormone replacement therapy
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androgen
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generic term for an agent (usually a hormone such as testosterone and adrosterone) that simulates developments of male characteristics
also regulate production of sebum |
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ductule
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very small duct!
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homeostasis
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state in which the regulatory mechanisms of the body maintain an internal environment within tolerable levels, despite changes in external env.
temp, acidity, and concentration of salt, food, and waste products |
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synthesize
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forming a complex substance by the union of simpler compounds or elements
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stratum corneum
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superficial layer of the epidermis composed of dead, flat cells that lack a blood supply and sensory receptors
thickness depends on wear on that area |
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stratum basal (basal layer)
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basal layer of cells in epidermis
only layer composed of living cells where new cells are formed as cells move, filled with keratin for waterproofing about 1 month from formation to sloughing in basal layer, melanocytes produce melanin |
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dermis
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aka corium
living tissue with capillaries, lymph, nerve endings, hair follicles, sebaceous (oil) glands, and sudoriferous (sweat) glands |
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subcutaneous layer
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aka hypodermis
binds dermis to underlying structures loose connective tissue and adipose interlaced with blood vessels stores fates, insulates and cushions body, and regulates temp |
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Sebum
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oily secretion from sebaceous gland
acidic - destroys harmful organisms when ductules are blocked, acne forms from congested sebum sex hormones regulate production and secretion glands everywhere except palms and soles |
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steat/o
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also adipo, lipo
fat lipocele - hernia containing fat steatitis - inflammation of fatty tissue |
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element meaning skin
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cutaneo, dermato, dermo
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hidr/o
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sweat, also sudor/o
hidradenitis - inflammation of the sweat glands sudoresis - profuse sweating, aka hyperhidrosis |
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ichthy/o
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dry, scaly
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kerato
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horny tissue, hard, cornea
keratosis - abnormal condition of horny tissue, thickened area of epidermis or any horny growth on skin, such as a callus or wart |
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melano
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black
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myc/o
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fungus
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onych/o
ungu/o |
nail
onychomalacia - softening of the nails ungual - pertaining to the nails like ungulate! |
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pil/o
trich/o |
hair
pilonidal - pertaining to hair in a nest trichopathy - disease involving the hair |
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scler/o
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hardening, sclera
scleroderma - hardening of the skin |
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seb/o
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sebum, sebaceous
seborrhea - discharge of sebum |
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squam/o
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scale
squamous - pertaining to scales |
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xen/o
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foreign, strange
xenograft - skin transplantation from a foreign donor xenophilious lovegood! |
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xero
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dry
xeroderma - dry skin |
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-cyte
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cell
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-derma
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skin
pyoderma - pus in the skin |
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Lesions
primary and secondary |
tissue pathologically altered by injury, wound, or infection
primary - initial reaction to pathologically altered tissue, may be flat or elevated secondary - changes due to infection, scratching, trauma or various stages of disease lesions described by appearance, color, location and size |
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Burns
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caused by contact with thermal, chemical, electrical, or radioactive agents
1st/superficial - only epidermis, local effects (erythema and hypersethesia) 2nd/partial thickness - epidermis and part of dermis, vesicles or bullae form and may heal with little or no scarring 3rd/full-thickness - epidermis and dermis destroyed, some underlying connective tissue damaged and maybe bones muscles and tendons ulcerating wounds develop, scar tissue body surface area affected estimated with rule of nines (9% and 18%) |
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neoplasms
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abnormal growth of tissue classified as benign or malignant
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benign neoplasms
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noncancerous growths of the same type of cells as the tissue in which they are growing
may harm through pressure |
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malignant neoplasms
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caner
cells that tend to become invasive and spread to remote regions of the body (metastasis). enter blood and lymph and travel to form secondary tumor sites cancer treatment includes surgery, chemotherapy, immunotherapy (biotherapy - stimulate body's own immune defenses), and radiation therapy |
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Tumor grading
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Grade I - tumor cells well differentiated, closely resemble tissue of origin and retain functions
Grade II - tumor cells moderately or poorly differentiated, less resemblance, more variation in size/shape of cells, increased mitoses Grade III - tumor cells poorly differentiated, increased abnormality in appearance, marked variation in shape/size, greatly increased mitoses, Grade IV - tumor cells very poorly differentiated, abnormal appearance to the extent that recognition of the tumor's tissue origin is difficult, extreme variation in size and shape of tumor cells |
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Tumor staging
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tumor-node-metastasis (TNM) system most common
classifies by size and degree of spread T - size and invasiveness of primary tumor (T1 small, T4 large and invasive) N - area lymph nodes involved (NX, N0, N1-4) M - invasiveness (metastasis) of primary tumor (MX, M0, M1 - presence of metastasis numbers indicate size or spread |
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Basal cell carcinoma
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most common skin cancer
from overexposure to sunlight usually locally invasive, but rarely metastasize |
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Squamous cell carcinoma
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from skin that undergoes pathological hardening (keratinizing) of epidermal cells
Invasive tumor with potential for metastasis, most common in fair skinned white men over age 60 confined - in situ penetrating - invasive treatment - surgical excision, curettage and electrodesiccation, radiation therapy, chemotherapy |
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malignant melanoma
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malignant growht of malanocytes
highly metastic - to liver, lungs, or brain Sun! requires surgery and adjuvant therapies |
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abscess
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localized collection of pus at the site of an infection (staphylococcal)
in hair follicle - furuncle or boil subcutaneous - carbuncle |
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alopecia
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partial or complete loss of hair resulting from normal aging, an endocrine disorder, a drug reaction, anticancer medication, or a skin disease
baldness |
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Bowen disease
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form of intraepiderma carcinoma (squamous cell) characterized by red-brown scaly or crusted lesions that resemble a patch of psoriasis or dermatitis
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cellulitis
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diffuse, acute infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissue
light glossy appearance of the skin, localized heat, redness, pain, swelling, and occasionally fever, malaise, and chills |
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chloasma
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pigmentary skin discoloration usually occurring in yellowish brown patches or spots
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comedo
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typical small skin lesion of acne vulgaris caused by accumulation of keratin, bacteria, and dried sebum plugging an excretory duct of the skin
closed form - whitehead |
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dermatomycosis
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infection of the skin caused by fungi
ringworm |
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ecchymosis
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skin discoloration consisting of a large, irregularly formed hemorrhagic area with colors changing from blue-black to greenish brown or yellow, commonly called a bruise
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eczema
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chronic inflammatory skin condition characterized by erythema, papules, vesicles, pustules, scales, crusts, and scabs and accompanied by intense itching (pruritis), aka atopic dermatitis
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erythema
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redness of the skin caused by swelling of the capillaries
sunburn or nervous blushing |
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eschar
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dear matter that is sloughed off from the surface of the skin
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impetigo
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bacterial skin infection characterized by isolated pustules that become crusted and rupture
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keratosis
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thickened area of epidermis or any horny growth on the skin
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lentigo
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small brown macules, esp on the face and arms, broght on by sun exposure, usually in a middle-aged or older person
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pallor
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unnatural paleness or abscence of color in skin
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pediculosis
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infestation with lice, transmitted by personal contact or common use of brushes, combs, or headgear
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Petechia
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minute, pinpoint hemorrhage under the skin
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pressure ulcer
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inflammation, sore, or skin deterioration caused by prolonged pressure (prevented blood flow)
decubitus ulcer stage 1 to 4 |
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pruritus
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intense itching
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psoriasis
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chronic skin disease characterized by circumscribed red patches covered by thick, dry, silvery, adherent scales and caused by excessive development of the basal layer of the epidermis
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purpura
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any of several bleeding disorders characterized by hemorrhage into tissues, particularly beneath the skin or mucous membranes, producing ecchymoses or petachia
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scabies
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contagious skin disease transmitted by the itch mite, commonly through sexual contact
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tinea
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fungal skin infection whose name commonly indicates the bod part affected, also called ringworm
tinea pedis - athlete's foot |
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urticaria
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allergic reactions of the skin characterized by the eruption of pale red elevated patches called wheals or hives
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verruca
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epidermal growth caused by a virus, aka warts
plantar, juvenile, and venereal warts |
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vitiligo
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localized loss of skin pigmentation characterized by milk-white patches
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chemical peel
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chemical removal of outer layers of skin to treat acne scarring and general keratoses
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cryosurgery
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use of subfreezing temperatures to destroy or eliminate abnormal tissue such as tumors, warts, and unwanted, cancerous, or infected tissue
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debridement
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removal of necrotized tissue from a wound by surgical excision, enzymes, or chemical agents
or maggots! promote healing and prevent infection |
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dermabrasion
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rubbing (abrasion) using wire brushes or sandpaper to mechanically scrape away the epidermis
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fulguration
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tissue destruction by means of high-frequency electric current; aka electrodesiccation
for tumors and lesions |
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photodynamic therapy
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PDT
procedure in which cells selectively treated with an agent called a photosensitizer are exposed to light to produce a reaction that destroys the cells cancer, actinic keratosis, and macular degeneration |
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biopsy
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representative tissue sample removed from a body site for microscopic examination
diagnosis, estimate prognosis, or follow course of disease frozen section, needle, punch, or shave |
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Mohs
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layers of cancer-containing skin are progressively removed and examined until only cancer-free tissue remains
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skin graft
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transplantation of healthy tissue to an injured site
allograft - one person to another, homograft autograft - within individual synthetic - artificial skin xenograft - foreign donor (usually a pig), heterograft |
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allergy skin test
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test in which a suspected allergen or sensitizer is applied to or injected into the skin to determine the patient's sensitivity to it
intradermal - subcutaneous injections patch - taped to skin scratch - aka puncture or prick test |
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culture and sensitivity
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(C&S)
lab test that grows a colony of bacteria removed from an infected area in order to identify and determine sensitivity to antibiotics |
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antifungals
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alter the cell wall of fungi or disrupt enzyme activity
ringworm, athlete's foot, fungal infection of the nail (onchomycosis) nystatin itraconazole |
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antihistamines
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inhibit allergic reactions of inflammation, redness, and itching caused by the release of histamine
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antiparasitics
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kills insect parasites, such as mites and lice
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antiseptics
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topically applied agents that inhibit growth of bacteria, thus preventing infections in cuts, scratches, and surgical incisions
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corticosteroids
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decrease inflammation and itching by suppressing the immune system's inflammatory response
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keratolytics
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destroy and soften the outer layer of skin so that it is sloughed off or shed
strong keratolytics remove warts and corns |
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protectives
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cover, cool, dry, or soothe inflammed skin
protectives do not penetrate the skin or soften it, rather they allow the natural healing process to occur by forming a long-lasting film that protects the skin from air, water, and clothing lotions ointments |
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topical anesthetics
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block sensation of pain by numbing the skin layers and mucous membranes
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bx
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biopsy
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BCC
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basal cell carcinoma
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C&S
|
culture and sensitivity
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CA
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cancer, chronological age, cardiac arrest
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FS
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frozen section
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ID
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intradermal
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I&D
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incision and drainage
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IMP
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impression (synonymous with diagnosis)
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IV
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intravenous
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TNM
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tumor-node-metastasis
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ung
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ointment
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XP, XDP
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xeroderma pigmentosum
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What happens in lymph nodes
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macrophages phagocytze bacteria and other harmful material while T cells and B cells exert their protectie influence
spleen resembles a lymph node becaue it acts as a filter by removing cellular debris, bacteria, parasites, and other infectious agents |
