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156 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What is cancer?
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a large group of diseases (over 200) characterized by uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells
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Basic facts about cancer?
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universal disease...
affects people without regard to race, gender, socio- economic status or culture... leading cause of death of all deaths in the U.S. in 2002 it is estimated... 1,359,150 new cancer cases will be diagnosed, not including basal and sqaumous cell skin cancers of which there will be over 800,000 cases... cancer is a disease of genetics - a disease of the cell |
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What is epidemiology?
|
FOCUSES ON:
study of disease in popula- tions; originally focused on infectious disease... on relationships... individuals' characteristics, their exposures, behaviors changing focus from acute to chronic illnesses GOAL: to determine the origins of disease in order to prevent, reduce its impact |
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What does cancer surveillance
require? |
a systematic collection of
data which monitors in disease frequency and changes in prevalence of risk factors |
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National Cancer Act 1971 says?
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mandated collection, analysis
and dissemination of data--surveillance, epidemiology, end results, (SEER) database SEER data updated annually, based on 11 population registries and 3 supple- mental registries (14% population) |
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Cancer Survival Rates
What is the overall survival of Caucasians from cancer? |
63% in 1997 contrasted with 33% in 1960
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What is the cancer survival rate for AA?
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52%...AA has the highest incidence of death or mortality from cancer...more Caucasians get cancer, but more AA's die from it...due to absence of care and sociological phenomena associated with it
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How many cancer survivors are in the U.S.
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eight million
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Which cancers have a high rate of survival?
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breast
Hodgkins leukemia melanoma prostate thyroid cancers uterine |
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There's been little improvement in survival for which 3 cancers?
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cervix
larynx oral cancers |
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The estimated 2006 most deadly cancer in men and women is?
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lung and bronchus
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The cancer with the highest incidence rate in women in 2006 is?
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breast cancer
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The cancer with the highest incidence rate in men in 2006 is?
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prostate
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2006 estimated cancer INCIDENCE rates for men?
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prostate
lung and bronchus Cancers 10% rate and lower? colon and rectum urinary bladder melanoma of skin non-Hodgkin lymphoma kidney oral cavity leukemia pancreas all other sites 18% |
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2006 estimated cancer INCIDENCE rates for women?
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breast
lung and bronchus colon rectum Cancers 6% rate and lower? uterine corpus non-Hodgkin lymphoma melanoma of skin thyroid ovary urinary bladder pancreas all other sites 22% |
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2006 death rate for men?
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lung and bronchus
Cancers 10% and lower? colon and rectum prostate pancreas leukemia liver and intrahepatic bile duct esophagus Non-Hodgkin lymphoma urinary bladder kidney all other sites 23% |
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2006 death rate for women?
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lung and bronchus
breast Rate falls to 10% and below: colon and rectum pancreas ovary leukemia non-Hodgkin lymphoma uterine corpus multiple myeloma brain/ONS all other sites 23% |
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Almost half of children's cancers are related to _________?
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hematological...blood and lymph related
ex: leukemia lymphoma |
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What is a risk factor?
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puts person at higher probability of coming down with something
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What is host modification?
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changing cellular environment and making it more hospitable to normal cells
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What is regulation?
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looking at screening guidelines...things that are in place for primary and secondary prevention
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How can oncology nurses intervene regarding risk status?
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education
host modification regulation |
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What are some of the etiologies of cancer?
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exact cause for some cancers
are still unknown... immune autoimmune genetic oncogenes viral (not communicable) |
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The predisposing factors for cancer are?
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drugs/chemicals
exposure to sun genetics/familial high dose radiation irritation of body parts low resistance to infection nutritional factors smoking |
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Unchangeable risks?
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hereditary
past exposures aging process |
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How does the aging process promote cancer growth?
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longer duration of carcino-
genic exposure increased susceptibility of cells to carcinogens decreased ability to repair DNA oncogenic activation or tumor suppression gene loss decreased immune surveillance |
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When identifying risks for cancer, assess the following?
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access to care
+education +cultural beliefs +perception of risk +recognition of symptoms delays in diagnosis and treatment family history family pedigree lifestyle social history socioeconomic status (SES) work history |
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Cancer INCIDENCE of poverty are? (6)
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cervical
esophageal lung oral pancreas stomach |
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Cancer INCIDENCE of affluent are? (7)
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breast
colon endometrium prostate rectum skin testis |
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SES (socioeconomic status) has an inverse relationship with _______ for all cancers?
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mortality
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Exogenous influences of socioeconomic status on patterns of cancer onset progression are?
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health behaviors
life-style medical care acceptability accessibility availability |
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Endogenous influence of socioeconomic status on patterns of cancer onset progression are?
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co-morbidities
coping endocrine immune nutritional status resiliency social support stress |
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As much as _____% of all human cancer is related to lifestyle or environmental factors.
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80%
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What are primary prevention measures which equate to lifestyle changes? (5)
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avoiding tobacco use
exercise high fiber, low fat diet protection from sun safe sex |
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What are 9 ways to reduce cancer risk with a healthy lifestyle?
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avoid overexposure in the
sun... eat a healthy diet... get plenty of exercise... don't smoke or use tobacco in any form... have a physical exam on a routine basis, incl. a mammogram, PAP smear, testicular, and colon exam get plenty of sleep (6-8 hrs per night) keep weight within normal limits practice self-exams faith- fully know and follow health and safety rules at the workplace ex: HazMat |
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Socioeconomic status is a major determinant of what?
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cancer survival
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90% of cervical cancers are related to?
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human papilloma virus (HPV)
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To reduce cancer risk, limit fat intake to _____ to _____ percent total calories?
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20 to 30%
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To reduce cancer risk, is it better to increase or decrease fiber?
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increase
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To reduce cancer risk, how much alcohol is allowed?
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limit alcohol to less than two drinks per day
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To reduce cancer risk, eat foods high in vitamins ___ & ____ which are found in which foods?
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A & C
leafy green vegetables yellow vegetables fresh fruits |
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To reduce cancer risk, eat more cruciferous vegetables
(named for cross-shaped blossoms) such as? |
broccoli
brussel sprouts cabbage rutabagas sprouts turnips |
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What is found in meats that should be reduced in consumption to reduce the risk of cancer?
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nitrates (a preservative
found in some processed meats) |
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To reduce cancer risk, reduce intake of red?
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meat
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Explain 3 generation pedigree?
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1st generation is the patient and their siblings...
2nd generation is the parents... 3rd generation is the grandparents |
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What is a pedigree (family tree)?
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a graph of a family history for a specific trait or health problem over several generations
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A healthy diet to reduce cancer risks is vegetarian and includes a diet ____ in fiber, _____ in fat, and a _______ amount of protein
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high
low moderate |
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To reduce risk of cancer, add dark green and yellow vegetables, cruciferous vegetables, beans, folate, and orange juice.
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okay
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To reduce cancer risk, add the following vitamin and minerals with antioxidants in them (3)?
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vitamin C
beta carotene selenium |
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To reduce cancer risk, add the following phytochemicals (3)?
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isoflavones
lycopene polyphenols |
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To reduce cancer risk, drink green and black tea and lower alcohol.
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okay
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The single most preventable cause of illness and premature death in the U.S. is?
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tobacco use
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The average life expectancy for a chronic smoker is about ____ years shorter than for a nonsmoker?
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15
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Smokeless tobacco can also lead to nicotine addiction and dependence, and increased risk for what 3 types of cancer?
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esophageal
larynx throat |
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Define primary prevention?
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use of strategies to prevent actual occurrence of cancer...this method of cancer prevention is most effective when there is a known cause for a cancer type
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Define secondary prevention?
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use of screening strategies to detect cancer early, at a time when cure or control is more likely
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What is the difference between UVA and UVB radiation?
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?
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Three types of skin cancer are?
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basal cell carcinoma
malignant melanoma squamous cell carcinoma |
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To avoid excessive sun exposure, apply SPF 15 _____ minutes prior to sun exposure?
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30
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Potential occupational hazarads that might cause cancer include?
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asbestos fibers
bischlormethyl ether chromium compounds nickel and uranium dusts vinyl chloride |
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Breast self-exam for 40+ years?
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annual mammogram
annual clinical breast exam monthly breast self exams |
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Breast self-exam 20-39 years?
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clinical breast exam every 3
years monthly breast self exams |
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What are the screening guidelines for ovarian cancer?
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none
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What is the tumor marker for ovarian cancer?
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CA-125
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Diagnostic study for ovarian cancer?
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transvaginal ultrasound
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Ovarian cancer vague signs and symptoms?
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abdominal fullness
bloating pelvic pressure fatigue |
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What is a colonoscopy?
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a procedure to look inside the rectum and colon for polyps, abnormal areas, or cancer...a colonoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is inserted through the rectum into the colon...polyps or tissue samples may be taken for biopsy
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What is a digital rectl exam?
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DRE...an exam of the rectum...the doctor or nurse inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the lower part of the rectum to feel for lumps or anything else that seems unusual
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Diagnostic studies for lung cancer?
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CXR
spiral CT no screening guidelines |
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Acronym for warning signals of cancer?
CAUTION ***(a special handout was given for this) |
Change in bowel or bladder habits
A sore that does not heal Unusual bleeding or discharge Thickening or lump in breast or elsewhere Indigestion or difficult swallowing Obvious change in wart or mole Nagging cough or hoarseness |
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Late signs and symptoms?
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anemia
anorexia fever weakness weight loss |
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Nurse's role in assisting with diagnostic procedures?
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give support
lengthy process tiring process frightening process requires client education, preparation, cooperation |
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History and physical exam?
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allergies
concurrent disorders family medical history general information (demographic data) general review of systems present state of health and life style presenting complaint previous state of health |
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Laboratory tests?
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UA-urine analysis,
nonspecific Stool-guaiac-tests for occult blood in stool-indicator of GI cancer serum chemistries electrolytes-NA+, K+, Cl-, CO2- glucose BUN (blood urea nitrogen) and Cr (creatinine)-monitors renal function CBC RBC Hgb & Hct WBC Pits |
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What is a guaiac stool lab test?
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tests for occult blood in stool...an indicator of GI cancer
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What is a creatinine test?
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monitors renal function
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How is the RBC lab test affected by cancer?
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often decreased in lymphoma and leukemia, monitored during chemotherapy/radiation
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What does the Pits lab test monitor?
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thrombocytes
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What does the specialized cancer lab test tumor marker monitor for?
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monitors for specific proteins, antigens, genes, hormones or enzymes...released by cancers
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What does the specialized lab test acid phosphatase monitor for?
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prostate
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What does the specialized lab test alkaline phosphatase monitor for?
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bones
liver |
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What does the specialized lab test Bence Jones Protein monitor for?
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immunoglobins found in urine of patients with multiple myeloma, associated with tumor metstasis to bone, lymphatic tissue
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What does the CA-15-3 specialized cancer lab test monitor for?
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cancer antigen, tumor marker for monitoring breast cancer
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What is the CA-19-9 cancer tumor marker for?
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cancer antigen...pancreatic carcinoma
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What is the CA-125 tumor marker for?
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cancer antigen...ovarian cancer
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What is CEA?
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carcionembryonic antigen...tumor marker...colorectal, breast, lung, often the first indication of recurrence
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What is AFP?
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alpha
fetoprotein testicular, liver |
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What is PSA?
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prostate specific antigen...
more sensitive than acid phosphatase |
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What is HCG?
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human chorionic gonadotropin-
choriocarcinoma |
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What is serum calcitonin?
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thyroid
lung breast pancreas |
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Radiological studies include (7)?
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CT scanning
mammogram MRI PET scans - radioisotope ultrasound x-rays |
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How are x-ray studies used to diagnose cancer and which cancers are first detected on x-ray?
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to visualize internal structures...lung and GI cancers are first detected on x-ray
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How is CT scanning used to diagnose cancer?
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CT scanning is computerized axial tomography - 3 dimensional cross section, useful for chest, abdominal cavity and brain
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What does PET stand for?
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positron emission tomography
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What is MRI used for?
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magnetic resonance imaging...
sectional images using magnetic firlds, useful for detecting tumors of bone and CNS |
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What are scans - radioisotope used for?
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rely on radioactive substances, useful in liver, spleen, lungs, heart, thyroid, brain, urinary tract
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What is ultrasound used for?
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high frequency ultrasound waves, useful in assessing pelvis, heart, abdomen
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What are two types of invasive diagnostic techniques?
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ENDOSCOPY...permits "direct" visualization of internal structures....
requires informed consent, check allergies... biopsy is often done during an endoscopic procedure CYTOLOGY...study of cells and fluids obtained by brushings, scrapings, smears or needle aspiration - direct examination of cells -leads to a definitive diagnosis |
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What is an endoscopy?
|
permits "direct" visualization of internal structures....
requires informed consent, check allergies... biopsy is often done during an endoscopic procedure |
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What is cytology?
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study of cells and fluids obtained by brushings, scrapings, smears or needle aspiration - direct examination of cells -leads to a DEFINITIVE diagnosis
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What is a biopsy?
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removal of sample tissue for microscope exam, leads to a?
requires informed consent check allergies |
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Histology of tissue (10)?
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aspiration
bone marrow endometrial excisional frozen section incisional liver lung pleura |
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Cytology of cells (8)?
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bronchoscopy
endoscopy gastric analysis lumbar puncture peritoneoscopy PAP smear sputum |
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When taking a cancer family history, obtain at least how many generations of pedigree?
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three
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Ask about ALL individuals in the family and record...questions to ask are?
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age at cancer diagnosis...
age at and cause of death... bilateral vs unilateral cancer... primary vs metastatic cancer.. precursor lesions? ex: LCIS DCIS record ethnicity and race |
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What does pedigree help to decide with?
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risks to patient and family members...
obtaining medical records to confirm diagnosis... consultation with expert in cancer genetics referrals for screening, prevention, and support offering genetic testing |
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Common pedigree symbols (10)?
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adopted
affected with trait deceased dizygotic twins male, female mating monozygotic twins mutation carrier proband (patient initiating genetic workup) sibship |
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Information to obtain about AFFECTED relatives?
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current age
age at and date of diagnosis/ death type and location of primary cancers(s), stage and laterality second cancer: metastasis or new primary? environmental exposures (ie, smoking, sun) ethnicity/race |
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Information to obtain about unaffected relatives?
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current age
health status and history of significant illnesses presence of other physical findings associated with cancer syndromes if deceased, cause of and age at death |
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When to suspect hereditary cancer syndrome
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cancer in 2 or more close
relatives (on same side of family early age at diagnosis... multiple primary tumors... bilateral or multiple rare cancers constellation of tumors consistent with specific cancer syndrome (ie, breast and ovary) evidence of autosomal dominant transmission |
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Cancer risk assessment: Key points?
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assess patient's perception
of cancer risk... obtain a careful family history that includes at least three generations... keep cancer family histories up to date... confirm verbal reports with pathology records... know the benefits and limitations of quantitive methods to estimate cancer risk... |
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Genetic predisposition testing is a multi-step process?
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identify at-risk patients
provide pretest counseling and psychological assess- ment provide informed consent select and offer test disclose results provide post-test counseling and follow-up |
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When should genetic testing be considered?
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patient has a reasonable
liklehood of carrying an altered cancer susceptibility gene.... genetic test is available that can be adequately interpreted... results will influence medical management patient wans information (empowerment) |
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Interpreting a positive result..result is a disease-associated mutation?
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cancer risk...true positive...cancer risk depends on penetrance
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Interpreting a positive result...result is a variant of uncertain significance
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cancer risk...inconclusive result...cancer risk not yet known
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Interpreting a positive result...neutral polymorphism
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no effect on cancer risk
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A multi-step process: post-test genetic counseling
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assess patient response to results disclosure...
review meaning of result... discuss patient's plans for sharing results with family... discuss medical follow-up plan... |
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Importance of longitudinal follow-up?
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review management plan
periodically... assess and promote adherence to plan coordinate primary care and specialty services provide psychological support... keep current on new information and tools for managing inherited cancer susceptibility... update family history |
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Implications for patient care as a direct caregiver, the generalist oncology nurse?
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has knowledge of genetic principles
identifiees significant risk factors performs a basic cancer risk assessment three generation of pedigree consults as needed with genetics experts ensures informed consent for genetic testing and therapeutics provides psychological support to client/family going through genetic testing or decision making activities |
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Implications of patient care as an educator?
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assesses client/family's learning/psychological needs re-genetic services
answers basic questions and addresses basic concerns |
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Implications for health policy?
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decision making regarding the use of genetic technology..
standards set by national professional groups recognition of professional nurse as provider of genetic services... economic infuences on decision making based on genetic information and testing... ethical implications |
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Ethical, social, economic issues?
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fair use of genetic interventions...
equal access to genetic health care... potential for.. need for... potential for fragmented care of individuals and families with genetic conditions... |
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"genetic discrimination" in health insurance is illegal?
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Health insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)
prohibits group health insurance plans from discriminating on the basis of genetic information most states have enacted additional protection family members do not have to disclose whether a relative has undergone genetic testing |
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Cancer as a genetic disease?
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all cancers are genetic and involve changes in genetic material of the somatic cells, sporadic, acquired mutation "2nd hit theory"
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Cancer as an inherited disease?
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only a small proportion of cancers are inherited; or passed from one generation to the next through germine mutations (approximately 5-10%)
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Define gene?
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a segment of DNA that contains genetic information necessary to control a certain function, such as the synthesis of a polypeptide (structural gene), this segment is often referred to as a site, "locus", on a chromosome
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Define alleles?
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one of the variant forms of a particular locus, or location on a chromosome...different alleles produce variations in inherited characteristics and may be recessive or dominant
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Define penetrance?
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the degree to which the proporation of individuals with a given genotype express the expected phenotype
the gene is present and either is or is not expressed (all or none) in many of mutations associated with hereditary cancer, penetrance is incomplete some mutations have higher risk of cancer than others |
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Penetrance can be contrasted with?
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expression
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Many genetic disorders have a constellation of signs and symptoms, but not all individuals with the disorder will _______ them.
These disorders exhibit what is termed variable expression. |
manifest
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Expression refers to the components of the _______ that are exhibited in an individual.
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phenotype
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Two gene types?
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structural genes
regulatory genes |
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What is a structural gene type?
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code for one particular gene product (protein) that performs a function elsewhere in the cell or body
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What is a regulatory gene?
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code for a gene product that regulates the expression of another gene(s)
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What is gene expression?
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activation of a gene leading to transcription, translation, and synthesis of a specific protein
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What is gene suppression?
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suppression of a specific gene activity through the action of a regulatory gene
OR through changing conditions at the cellular level the action prevents protein synthesis by inhibiting the process of gene transcription |
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Which type of genes may mutate to cause cancer?
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tumour suppressor genes
oncogenes DNA repair genes telomerase p53 |
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Genes implicated in cancer: tumor suppressor genes?
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normal function is to suppress or negatively regulate cell proliferation (function as BRAKES)
recessive , in that both alleles lost in cancer cells examples: RB gene, Retinoblastoma TP53, lung, breast, esophageal, liver, bladder and ovarian; brain, sarcomas, lymphomas, leukemias Overall - 50% human Ca BRCA1 and 2, familial breast, ovarian |
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oncogene classification?
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growth factors
growth factor receptors nonreceptor tyrosine kinase (TK) |
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Growth factors?
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vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) involved in tumor neoangiogenesis; fibroblast growth factor (FGF) in hemangiomas; platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), sarcomas, gliomas
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Growth factor receptors?
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epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) (NSSLC, breast, ovarian, colorectal, H & N), ERBB2, (ovarian and breast), TGFB
|
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Nonreceptor Tyrosine Kinase (TK)?
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SRC gene family initiate TK activity, increased in neuroblastoma, SCLC, colon and breast adenocarcinoma
|
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Define telomeres?
|
These are the extreme ends or "tips" of a chromosome
Within these structures are multiple repeat sequences As a person ages, the telomeric areas of chromosomes become shorter |
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What role do telomeres play in cancer development?
|
these areas appear to play a role in cancer development in that many cancer cells retain their telomeric lengths and have minimal limits placed on their reproductive capacity
activation of enzyme telomerase "immortality" lose programmed cell death. |
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Types of genetic alterations in cancer?
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amplification
chromosomal abnormalities defects in mismatch repair mutations |
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Define mutations?
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mutations may arise during DNA replication and recombination, be caused by mutagens, or arise spontaneously
|
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Chromosomal abnormalities?
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fragile sites on chromosomes may explain resulting abnormal cell growth
fragile sites are sensitive to low folic acid can be induced by mutagens and carcinogens have been implicated in cancer....multiple myeloma (MM) and Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) |
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Amplification?
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increase in number of gene copies
results in overexpression of gene product amplification of certain genes may relate to carcinogenesis... ex: enhancement by ultraviolet light progression of tumor cells results in loss of cell-cycle control, loss of TS gene activity and increased amplification, Ex: HER2?NEU |
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Define aneuploidy?
|
the karyotype of tumor cells can, in some situations, be useful in either diagnosing specific malignancies or have prognostic value for response to therapy
overall, the more abnormal the tumor karyotype, the more advanced the tumor usually is |
|
Hallmarks of hereditary cancers?
|
transmission across 3 generations...
specific tumor site clusters... multiple primary cancers in the same individual... presence of rare cancers in multiple primary cancers in the same individual... presence of rare cancers in multiple family members.... precursor lesions |
|
Hallmarks of hereditary cancers?
|
breast cancer
BRCA1 BRCA2 colorectal cancer HNPCC Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP) Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia (MEN) |
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Population base characteristics
|
founder effect...high frequency of a gene mutation in a population founded by a small ancestral group when one of the founders was a carrier of the mutation, for ex.
occurs when there is little influx of outside individuals resulting in the wide distribution of a limited number of different chromosomes among a population |
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Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP)?
|
APC gene on chromosome 5
numerous adenomatous polyps (greater than 100) extra-intestinal features polys develop during teen years 90% penetrance by age 30 |
|
MEN 2A?
|
thyroid cancer - 90%
involement of parathyroid - 10-20% phenochromocytoma 40-60% curable if detected prior to metastasis |
|
MEN 2B?
|
thyroid cancer
pheochromocytoma mucosal neuromas |
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Cancer sites with inherited risk component?
|
skin
prostate nephroblastoma retinoblastoma Wilm's tumor Li-Fraumeni syndrome |