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395 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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sin(0)=
sin(90)= sin(180)= |
0
1 0 |
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cos(0)=
cos(90)= cos(180)= |
1
0 -1 |
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What is energy of motion & formula
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kinetic energy=1/2mv^2
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what is work net
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ΔKE=Fdcosθ
force*distance through which force is applied*cos(angle between direction of force & direction of velocity) |
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What kind of quantity is energy?
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scalar quantity
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what is an electric field? units, example
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point in the direction a positive charge would get pushed if it were placed in it (point from pos plate to neg plate)
newtons/coulomb for every 1 coulomb of charge, 6 newtons of force will be exerted on it |
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what is the unit for force?
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newton
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What is work for height change?
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W=mgh=PE
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what kind of energy do systems seek?
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lowest potential energy
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what are all the forces?
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-gravity:mg, Gm1m2/r^2
-normal:surface pushes perpendicularly on object -friction:surface pushes parallel to that surface -tension:sting/rope -spring:kx -electrical:kq1q1/r^2,qE -buoyant: ρvg -applied:ma -magnetic:qvBsinθ |
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when do u have centripetal acceleration
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when a force points perpendicular to the velocity
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where does the centripetal force point
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towards the center of the circle the object will travel in
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what is the formula for centripetal acceleration and definition?
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ac=v^2/r
how rapidly the object is changing direction |
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what does the magnetic force do?
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pushes charges that move perpendicular to a magnetic field
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what is the thumb rule?
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velocity=thumb
magnetic field=fingers magnetic force=palm given any 2 of these variable, one can solve for the missing one. *pos. charge=right hand, neg charge=left hand) |
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transfer of electrical energy to potential energy? (going through electric field, then magnetic field)
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qV=1/2mv^2
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what is entropy?
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randomness/disorder
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why does evaporation cause cooling
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the highly energetic molecules escape and the low energy molecules remain, lower energy=colder temp
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what is atmospheric pressure
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it pushes molecules back so they cant escape
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when can molecules escape and what is it called?
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Pvapor=Patm; boiling point
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what kind of pressure is there at higher altitude and how does it affect bp?
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higher altitude=lower atmospheric pressure=lower boiling point (cuz the atmospheric pressure is closer to the vapor pressure)
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what are the values for atmospheric pressure?
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760 torr, 760 mmHg, 1atm, 101,000 Pascals, 101 kilopascals
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what pressure exists in outer space?
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NO ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE! EVERYTHING BOILS
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what affects boiling point?
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-ambient pressure (pressure surround the liquid)
-identity of the liquid (electronegativity,intermolecular forces, hydrogen bonding) -weight -solute -branching |
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what is intermolecular force
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force that hold 2 different molecules together
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what is intramolecular force
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force that holds parts of the same molecule together
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what are the types of intermolecular forces, categorized by polar/non-polar molecules
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polar:hydrogen,dipole-dipole
non-polar: VDW,london dispersion |
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what conditions must be satisfied to have a hydrogen bond?
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-hydrogen interacts with a lone pair of electrons
-hydrogen ure matching up must be special->bonded to O,N, or F -there must be an electronegativity difference between the hydrogen and other element |
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what is dipole-dipole interaction?
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2 molecules that are polar and there's some charge separation that permits interaction
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what makes a molecular polar/non-polar?
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polar=all substituents aren't the same and asymmetry
non-polar =all substituents are the same, and symmetry causes charge to be spread out equally |
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what can u tell about smelly matter?
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the molecules are evaporating
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what is a salt, what is it made of?
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an ionically bonded solid, composed of a metal+nonmetal
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nitrate
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NO3-
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what are the solubility rules
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-all group one salts are soluble
-all nitrates are soluble -all ammonium salts are soluble |
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what kind of interactions are created when solute is dissolved?
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ion-dipole interactions
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what is Raoult's law?
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Pv=Pv°*Xsolvent
vapor pressure of the solution=v.p of solvent*mole fraction of solvent |
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what is molarity
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concentration, moles of solute per liters of solution
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what is molality
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moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
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what is mole fraction of solute
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moles of solute per total moles
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what is the formula for change in temperature due to boiling a solution
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ΔTb=Kb*i*m
change in temperature=constant*particle dissociation factor*concentration |
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what is the formula for change in temperature due to freezing a solution
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ΔTf=Kf*i*m
change in temp.=constant*particle dissociation factor*concentration |
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what is osmotic pressure π
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iMRT
particle dissociation factor*molarity*constant*temperature |
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how much is 1 amu
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1.67E-27 kg
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how much is 1 mole
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6E23 molecules
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what is an isotope?
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same number of protons, different number of neutrons
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what is an allotrope, example?
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neutral elemental form of some molecule
ex:O3 & O2 |
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what are isomers?
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same molecular formula, different structural shape
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how do you u find the limiting reagent?
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moles you have/corresponding coefficient
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what is a precipitation reaction
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double displacement (metathesis) or single displacement
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what is a combustion reaction & how do u balance it?
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hydrocarbon+O2->CO2+H2O
-First balance carbons,then hydrogens, then oxygens |
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what is the reaction involving CO2 and H2O
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CO2+H2O⇌H2CO3⇌(H+)aq+HCO3-aq
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what happens to the energy when a bond is broken and why, what's the term called?
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the energy increases because when a bond breaks, the r (distance between + and - charges) increases, so the force decreases, but since its a negative number, the force is less negative, which means that it increases. bond breaking is ENDOTHERMIC
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what is enthalpy
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ΔH, is a potential energy change that takes place under constant pressure
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what are the entropy facts?
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1)entropy of gas>aqueous>liquid>solid
2)to predict entropy change of a rxn, look at phase changes and total # reactant molecules:product molecules 3)is a chemical process occurs at constant temp, ΔS= ΔH/T |
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Gibb's free energy
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ΔG=ΔH-TΔS
how spontaneous/non-spontaneous a reaction is |
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when is a reaction temperature independant
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when ΔH and ΔS are opposite signs (one is positive and one is negative)
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what is a reaction temperature dependent?
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when ΔH and ΔS are both negative or both positive
both pos->need higher temp. for spontaneous reaction both neg->need lower temp. for spontaneous reaction |
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when is a molecule in its standard state?
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when it has the correct diatomicity, and correct room temp. phase
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how to construct heat of formation reaction?
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make sure u get 1 mole in the end, and each element is in its correct diatomic state (N2,H2,etc.)
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what are the state functions?
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ΔH enthalpy, ΔS entropy, ΔG gibb's free energy
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how do we get the hybridizations
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count the number of sigma (single) bonds->spppdd, for 2 bonds its sp and so on.
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what are the strong bases
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OH-, NH2-, OR-, C-, H-, LDA, tertbutoxide
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rate law example
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bimolecular reaction:
rate=k[A][B] constant*concentration of A*concentration of B |
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what is the rate determining step in a reaction
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the slowest step
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what are the SN2 facts
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1)nucleophile strength matters
2)stereochemistry matters (inversion of configuration) 3)solvent matters (prefers polar aprotic) |
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what are the non-polar solvents
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hexane, toluene, benzene, CCl4
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when does SN2 happen
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when you have a good nucleophile or strong base & a methyl/primary carbon
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what are the classic nucleophiles
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CN, Cl, Br-,I-, N3-, RCOO-, SH-
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SN1 Facts
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-nucleophile strength is almost completely irrelevant
-substitution degree matters a lot (more substituted carbon=more stable carbocation, tertiary is best) -leaving groups are important |
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what makes a good leaving group
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-positively charged
-further to the right on periodic table (bigger) -further down on periodic table |
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when is a molecule chiral, what happens to a chiral molecule during SN1
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carbon bound to 4 diff groups, the products will be racemic
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what is the aggression order in an organic chemistry reaction?
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strong base->good nucleophile->everything else
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E2 facts
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1)dont wrry about stereochemistry
2)dont wrry about strength of attacker 3)solvent is conjugate acid of base |
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what state function has a higher effect under high temperature
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entropy
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what state function has a higher effect at low temperature
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enthalpy
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what is a period (T)
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the amount of time required to complete one cycle of motion
T=1/f |
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what is a cycle
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smallest repeating unit of motion
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what is velocity of a wave equal to
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wavelength * frequency
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what is frequency (f)
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f=1/T
how many cycles happen in 1 second |
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what is a transverse wave, examples?
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when the material of the medium vibrates perpendicular to the wave
ex:rope waves, ocean waves, light waves |
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What is the electromagnetic spectrum, in increasing energy?
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radio waves->microwaves->IR->ROYGBV->UV->XRAY->Gamma
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what is electromagnetic energy equal to?
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E=hf; E=hc/λ
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what are longitudinal waves, example?
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when the vibration of the material is parallel to the propogation direction of the wave
ex: sound waves |
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what does the velocity of a wave depend on
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the medium that it travels through
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what is the velocity of sound equal to
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v=sqrt(Β/ρ)= bulk modulus/density of medium->measure of how stiff atoms in the medium are/density of medium
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what are the rules for the velocity of sound
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1)sound travels fasted in solids>liquids>gas
2)less dense medium will progogate sound faster 3)sound uses molecules to propogate (sound doesnt travel in vacuum) |
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what does higher amplitude mean in sound?
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louder
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what is intensity equal to
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I=P/A->power/area->Watts/m^2
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what formula relates intensity and radius?
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I2/I1=(r1/r2)^2
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what is the equation for sound decibels
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dB=10log(I/Io)
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what is Io
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the smallest sound we can hear->10^-12 W/m^2
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what is the superposition principal
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2 waves add their amplitude to make one big wave
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what phase are 2 waves in if they're zero degrees apart?
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the waves are in phase->constructive interference
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what kind of interference do waves have at 180 degrees?
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destructive interference, out of phase
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what is beat frequency?
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f beat=abs. val.(f1-f2)
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what does higher frequency mean in sound
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higher pitch
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if ure running with constant velolocity towards the sound source, will u hear higher/lower/constant frequency
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constant higher frequency
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when does the wavelength change in sound
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when the sound source is moving
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when does the velocity change in sound
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when the detector is moving
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what is the equation relating frequency to velocity and wavelength
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f=v/λ
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if the source & detector are moving closer, how does the frequency change
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frequency increases
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if the source & detector are moving further apart, how does the frequency change?
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frequency decreases
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what does the amount of frequency change depend on
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the velocity of the source & detector
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source moving away, how does wavelength change
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increasing wavelength
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source moving toward, how does wavelength change
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decreasing wavelength
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what is the doppler effect equation
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f percieved=fo*( v_wave+/- v_detector/v_wave +/- v_source)
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what are traveling waves
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waves propogating on a rope
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what is the number of seconds to go through one vibration
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period
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what is the fundamental wave?
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smallest piece of sine curve that'll fit on a string->first harmonic
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what is the fundamental frequency?
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f=v/2L
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what harmonic is it when the frequency is twice the fundamental frequency
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2nd harmonic
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what is the fundamental frequency of a pipe open at one end
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f=v/4L
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what is n in humans?
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n=2
humans have 2n, dipoloid, homologous chromosomes |
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which kind of cells have diploid chromosomes
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somatic cells
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where kind of cells have haploid chromosomes
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gamete cells
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what is incomplete dominance, ex?
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intermediate phenotype
Rr=pink |
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what is codominance, ex?
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both original phenotypes seen
Rr=red & white |
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what are mendelian genetics
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simple dominant/recessive
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what are the requirements for the hardy weinberg principle?
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random mating, no emigration/migration, large population size, no natural selection, no mutation
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what is the equation for total allele frequency
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p+q=1
p=entire dominant allele frequency q=total recessive alleles |
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what is the equation that describes the genotype of the population
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p^2+2pq+q^2=1
p^2=fraction of homozygous dominant people 2pq= fraction thats heterozygous q^2=homo-recessive |
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what is osmotic pressure
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pressure that water pushes into the compartment u're studying
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what is the most common plasma protein
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albumin
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what is filtrate in the kidney
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the collection of aqueous stuff (nutrients, wastes, and water)
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what is the nephron
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the functional unit of the kidney
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where does filtration occur from
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from the glomerulus to bowman's capsule
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What are the organic chemistry physical properties
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-boiling pt: IF, mass, branching
-melting pt: symmetrical branching=higher melting pt -solubility -spectra IR |
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what is the most common polar solvent
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water
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characteristic of soluble molecules
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-charged molecules
-hydrogen bonding -general polarity -4 carbons or fewer in chain |
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How do you extract a base
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put it in acid (HCl)
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How do you extract an acid
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put it in base (NaOH)
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what does a more polar functional group in IR Spectra mean
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stronger signal
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what do the numbers on the IR spectra represent
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frequency, wave #=1/λ
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what is the IR of carbonyl
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1700
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what is the IR of an alcohol -OH
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3000-3600
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what is the IR of a C triple bond C
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2200
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what is the IR of a C double bond C
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1620
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what is the IR of C triple bond C-H
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3300
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what is the IR of C double bond C-H
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3000
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what is the IR of C-C-H
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2800
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what does the size of the peak in IR spectra represent
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the amount of absorbance->how many photons have been absorbed
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characteristic of electron donating group
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-makes the rest of the molecule more negative (less acidic)
-lone pair adjacent to the rest of the molecule |
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what are examples of EDG
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OH, NH2
weak=R |
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characteristic of electron withdrawing group
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makes the rest of the molecule less negative, more positive even (more acidic)
-partial or full positive adjacent to molecule |
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what are examples of EWG
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carbonyl, NO2, CN
weak=F,Cl,I,Br (have electrons) |
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pKa of butanoic acid
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about 3
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pKa of phenol
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about 10
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pKa of water and R-OH
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about 15
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pKa of C triple bond C-H
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about 22
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pKa of NH3
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about 25
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pKa of C double bond C-H
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about 32
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pKa of C-C-H
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about 45
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what is a carboxylate
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a carboxylic acid thats missing a proton
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what's an organometallic
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CH3-Li
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What's a grignard reagent
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CH3-MgBr
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what is the most favorable reaction with a carbonyl
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substitution, since ure reforming the carbonyl
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do more hydrogens mean more reduced or oxidized
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more reduced
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which functional groups are more oxidized
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ones with oxygen
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what are the oxidized groups (increasing order)
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OH
aldehyde COOH |
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what are the oxidizing agents, weakest
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PCC (weak->aldehyde/ketone)
H2Cr2O7 H2CrO4 KMNO4 |
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what are the reducing agents
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LiAlH4
NaBH4 |
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what does LiAlH4 attack
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carboxyllic acids
esters ketones aldehydes |
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what does NaBH4 attack, why
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-aldehydes
-ketones cuz it is not so negative cuz it has a smaller electronegativity difference |
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what's a gem-diol
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2 -OHs attached to one carbon
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what's a vic-diol
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2 -OHs separated by a carbon
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whats an acetal
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2 -ORs attached to same carbon
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what a hemi-acetal
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1 -OR and 1 -OH attached to the same carbon
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what is UV-Vis spectrometry a tool for
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determining whether or not conjugation occurs in the molecule
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what does heat do in an ochem reaction
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decarboxylation
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what structural & constitutional tautomers
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2 molecules different in placement of one hydrogen
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what is tautomerization
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switching between keto & enol
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sin 30/cos 60
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.5
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sin 45/cos 45
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.7
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sin 60/cos 30
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.85
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what is impluse
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Δp= F*t
Δp=mΔv |
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what is momentum
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p=mv
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what is always conserved in a collision
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momentum
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when is kinetic energy conserved
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elastic collsion
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what is a perfectly inelastic/completely inelastic collision
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where the objects stick together
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what formula is it when elevator accelerates, and net force is upward
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N-mg=ma
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what is apparent weight
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normal force measure how heavy u feel
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what is the force when on an inclined plane
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Fnet=mgsinθ
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what can fs_max mean
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-amount of applied force necessary to get the object moving
-max static friction that can be sustained while the object is stationary |
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what is the formula for fs_max
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=μN
coefficient of friction * normal force |
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what does μ tell you
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how slippery of rough the surface-surface interaction is
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when would one feel weightless? example
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when there is no normal force pushing up against one
ex:skydiving |
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what is the formula when going up, but slowing down
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mg-N=ma
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what does NO FORCE mean
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NO ACCELERATION (constant velocity)
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what must it be when only ONE force is acting on an object
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that object must be ACCELERATING
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when is the only time there can be kinetic friction
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when there's rubbing
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what is the equation for torque
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τ=rFsinθ
r=where u apply force & point of rotation θ= angle between ur direction of force and the r line |
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what does torque tell u
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how effectively a force can be used to rotate an object
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what are the types of energy
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regular KE=1/2mv^2
PE->gravitational, spring, electrical heat->friction, circuit resistors |
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what is the work done by friction
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W=μNd
=heat generated by friction |
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what are conservative forces, ex?
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forces that keep energy within the object and dont create heat
ex: gravity, electrical, spring |
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what are nonconservative forces, ex?
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forces that dissipate heat
ex:friction |
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what do ALL conservative forces exhibit
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PATH INDEPENDANCE
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what is the formula for springs in a series
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1/k_eff=1/k_1+1/k_2
same force is applied in both springs |
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what is the formula for springs in parallel
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k_eff=k_1+k_2
both springs are compressed/stretched by same amount |
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what is the potential energy in a spring
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U=1/2kx^2
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what is the equation for total internal kinetic energy
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U=3/2nRT
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what is the equation for delta U?
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ΔU=Q+W
heat+work |
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when is heat transferred
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when theres a difference in temperature between 2 object (high to low)
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what are the types of heat transfer
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conduction
convection radiation |
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what is conduction?
formula? |
transfer of heat energy when two objects are in direct molecular contact with each other (usually through molecular collisions)
Q=KAΔT/l * Δt A=area of interface between the 2 systems l=distance between the 2 systems K=property of the materials undergoing heat transfer |
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why do things feel cold?
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cuz of the RATE of heat transfer
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what is convection
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when heat is transferred through a change of location of the hotter molecules
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what is radiation, whats special about it
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transfer of heat energy through electromagnetic waves
*only energy transferred in a vacuum |
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how is power and temperature related
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Power is proportional to T^4
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describe the work when gas is compressed
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work is done by the surroundings on the gas (system)
ΔU=POSITIVE |
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describe the work when gas expands
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work is done by gas on surroundings
ΔU=NEGATIVE |
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What is the equation for work on a gas
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W=-PΔV
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what is an isothermal process
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no change in temperature
ΔU=0, Q=W |
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what is isovolumetric
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constant volume
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what is isochoric
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constant volume
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what does adiabatic mean, how do we get that
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no heat transfer, Q=O
-well insulated & VERY rapid process |
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what is the formula for pressure for ideal gases
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PV=nRT
P=force & frequency of collision V=size of container n=# of moles T=avg KE R=constant |
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what are the 5 assumptions for ideal gas
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1)particles of gas take up negligible volume
2)intermolecular forces are negligible 3)collisions between molecules and wall are elastic 4)many molecules in container 5)temp-avg KE |
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3 conditions that promote ideal gas behavior
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1)large container volume
2)low pressure 3)high temperature |
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what is boyles law
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P1V1=P2V2
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what is partial pressure
|
pressure of a gas as if it were the only gas in the container
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in what situation do you have a constant electric field
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2 parallel plates
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what are the different values of R and what conditions do they apply to
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R= .1 at standard gen chem units (atm & liters)
R=8 at standard physics units (m^3 & pascals) |
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what is the conversion from Celsius to kelvin
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K=C+273
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what does the "metal" refer to in a redox reaction
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the SOLID version of the metal
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what are the two types of electrochemical cells
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galvanic (voltaic) and electrolytic
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describe galvanic (voltaic) cell
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battery, spontaneous reaction->-ΔG
& positive E |
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describe electrolytic cell
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uses a battery, non-spontaneous reaction-> +ΔG, negative E
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what are the common metals for the plate to be in a galvanic cell
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inert metal (platinum) or same metal that you're going to form (Seed metal)
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what is the electrode (anode) in galvanic cell
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the metal plate where oxidation occurs (-)
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what is the cathode in galvanic cell
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the reduction site (+)
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what is the purpose of a salt bridge in a galvanic cell
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it allows the excess ions to mix together so you dont have an excess of positive or negative charge
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what is the charge designation on an electrolytic cell
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anode=positive
cathode=negative |
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what is the formula for ΔG with chemical energy?
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ΔG= -nFE
-E=+ΔG +E= -ΔG n=# of electrons in the transfer F=faraday's constant (10^5 C) |
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what is faraday's constant
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charge on a mole of electrons (10^5 C in 1 mole)
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what does Ka mean?
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strength of the acid
weak acid->negative Ka strong acid->positive Ka |
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what does the acidity depend on
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concentration of hydronium (H+)
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what is the pKa when Ka=10^-4
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pKa=4
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what is the pKa of strong acids? weak acids?
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strong acids= -pKA
weak acids= +pKa |
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what does Kb mean
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strength of the base
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what does basicity depend on
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concentration of hydroxide ions
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what is Kw?
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Kw=[H30][OH]=10^-14
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what does amphoteric mean? what exhibits this
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it means ability to form acids & bases, water is amphoteric
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when is the only time that pKa changes?
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when temperature changes
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what must it mean when the pH=pKa, regarding the concentration of acid and base
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the concentration of acid and base must be equal
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when does the protonated form of a molecule predominate
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pH<pKa
low pH=more H30+/H+ = will want to protonate |
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when does the deprotonated form of a molecule predominate
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pH>pKa
high pH= more OH- = will want to deprotonate |
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what is a zwitterion
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a neutral molecule
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what is the isoelectric point
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the pH that gives you the best chance of finding a neutral molecule
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what are titrations, what is its purpose
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slow controlled neutralization experiments, used to figure out the concentration of the acid, whose identity we know
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what does neutralization mean
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moles of acid=moles of base
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what occurs at the equivalence point
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i_A*M_A*V_A=i_B*M_B*V_B
#H * molarity acid * volume acid= #OH * molarity base * volume base |
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where does the equivalence point occur on a titration graph
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at the middle of the steeped region
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what is the titrant and what must it be
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it is the thing that u are adding during a titration and it must always be STRONG
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What color is litmus paper in acid/base
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acid= red
base= blue |
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what is a neutral salt
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conjugate base of strong acid
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what is a buffer
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it resists changes in pH, has equal amounts of acid & conjugate base
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what is the indicator and what must it be
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it tells you when u reach the equivalent point, it must be a weak acid
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what kind of indicator must we chose
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an indicator whose pKa is as close as possible to where we expect the pH of our equivalence point to be
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what are isomers
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2 molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures
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what do constitutional isomers have
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different connectivity
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what are cis-trans isomers
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one molecule is cis (same side) and one is trans (opposite side)
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how do conformational isomers differ
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they differ in rotations of bonds
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what is torsional strain
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when the electron clouds get too close and energy goes up
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what are the types of newman projections, in order of stability
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staggered anti, staggered gauche, eclipse
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what is the order of most stable carbon size, what is least stable
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6>5>7, cyclopropane & cyclobutane are the worse
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what are the different forms a clyclohexane can adapt
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chair>twist boat>boat>half-chair
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which molecule goes equitorial
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molecule with the bigger atomic radius goes equitorial
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what are enantioners
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nonsuperimposable mirror images
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what does superimposable mean
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having an internal plane of symmetry
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characteristic of chiral molecule, what is the term?
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can rotate polarized light->optically active
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what are the possibilities for optically active compounds?
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D=light rotated clockwise
L= light rotated counterclockwise |
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what are the drawing sign conventions for optically active compounds and how do you solve it?
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R=clockwise
S= counterclockwise you number the atoms, with the heavier atom getting highest priority. Draw circle from 1 to 3 and if the 4th atom is on dash, leave the sign convention and if not, switch it. |
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what are diastereomers
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not mirror images, but not identical and have 2 or more chiral centers
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do diastereomers rotate light
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YES
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what are epimers
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diastereomers that differ at one chiral carbon
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what is a meso-compound?
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2 more or more chiral compounds, have internal plane of symmetry, DONT rotate polarized light
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how do you separate diastereomers
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based on their their physical properties like mp, bp, solubility, and spectra
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how do you separate enantioners
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form diastereomers, separate them, and reform enantiomers
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how does NMR work
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it takes advantage of the net spin, works on atoms that have an odd number of nucleons
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what is lower field (left) called
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downfield
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what is higher field (right) called
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upfield
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what is the ppm of carboxyllic acid
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12ppm
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what is the ppm of the H attached to benzene
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7-8ppm
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what is the ppm of the H in aldehyde
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9-10 ppm
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what is the ppm of the H attached to which is directly attached to Br
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4 ppm
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how many ppm in carbonyl
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180-200
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what is the order of radicals from most stable?
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allylic>3°>2°>1°>methyl>vinylic
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what is term for R group
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alkyl group
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what is the term for benzene
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phenol group
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what is the term for anything with aromaticity
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aryl groups
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what are the steps in forming a radical
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initiation, propagation, termination
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what is initiation
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when you break a bond homolytically
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what provides energy for initiation
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A) energy from light, hf, heat
B) ROOR (peroxide) |
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what happens during propagation
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radical + nonradical ->different radical + nonradical
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what is an intermediate
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molecule that's made then immediately consumed
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what are catalysts
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they react and get regenerated at the end
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what happens in termination
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2 radicals->non-radical
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what is a current? formula
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moving positive charge
I=q/t |
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what is the formula for resistance
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R=pho*L/A
resistivity of material * (length/cross-sectional area) |
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what is the energy transfer as current passes through electrical resistor
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electrical potential energy -> heat
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what do resistors create? ex?
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HEAT, light bulb!
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characteristics for series
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same branch, current is the same
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characteristics for parallel
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different branches, same voltage drop
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equivalent resistance in parallel
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1/Req= 1/R1+1/R2
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equivalent resistance in series
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Req=R1+R2
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what happens to the current when you add a resistor in parallel
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current increases
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what happens to the current when theres a hole is one of the parallel resistors
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current stays the same
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what does a bright lightbulb mean about the current
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there is more current flowing through the lightbulb
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what happens to the current when a resistors in series blows up
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the current decreases, but really the 2nd resistor will disappear totally
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what are the values for STP
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temperature: 0°C or 273° Kelvin
pressure: 1 atm |
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what are the values for standard conditions
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1 atm at 25°C or 298° Kelvin
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what type of hormone is aldosterone? where is it from? effect?
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steroid hormone from adrenal cortex. Na+ absorption from distal tubule
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what type of hormone is ADH/vasopressin? where is it from? effect?
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peptide hormone, posterior pituitary, promotes uptake of water from collecting duct
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what does the difference in reaction rates stem from
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constant, nature of reaction, temperature, concentration
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rate at which X is produced
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ΔX/t
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rate at which X is consumed
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-ΔX/t
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what does bimolecular mean
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2 reactants coming together
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what does unimolecular mean
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1 reactant
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what is chemical equilibrium
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rate of forward reaction=rate of reverse reaction
ΔG=0 |
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Le Chatelier's Principle
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change concentration of any reactant/product, changes in temp, changes in pressure
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what is solubility
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number of moles of solid salt that can dissolve in 1 liter of water to make the soln. saturated
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when can the electron go up in energy
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if it collides with another electron or small particle or when it collides with a photon
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what is the diff between electron colliding with small particle or photon
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with a small particle, can have partial/equal transfer of energy but with photons, its all or non energy transfer
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how do you get small enough energy jumps that show behavior
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-metals dissolve in water
-conjugation |
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what did the photoelectric effect prove
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the particle nature of light
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what is the work function
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the energy to bring the highest energy electron to freedom
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what does if mean if electron has been ejected
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the photon frees the electron
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what is the equation for energy of a photon
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energy of a photon= KE_electron+ work fuction
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what does intensity mean
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how many electrons are present
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what are intensity differences reflected by
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differences in brightness
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what are the halogens in order of biggest to smallest
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F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
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what the 2 elements in liquid form
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Br2, mercury
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nitrite
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NO2-
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sulfate
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SO4-2
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sulfite
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SO3-2
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phosphate
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PO4-3
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ammonium
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NH4+
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carbonate
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CO3-2
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bicarbonate
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HCO3-
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hydroxide
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OH-
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permanganate
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MnO4-
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perchlorate
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ClO4-
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chlorate
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ClO3-
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chlorite
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ClO2-
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hypochlorite
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ClO-
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how many liters are in 1 moles of gas at standard conditions
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22.4 liters
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what is the trend for increasing nucleophile strength? exception?
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to the right and down
exception: in polar aprotic solvent, increasing trend is up |
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what is special about E2 in rings
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the hydrogen that gets grabbed must point in the opposite direction of the leaving group
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when you are increasing the temperature of a metal, what happens to the density
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it decreases
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reaction quotient
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Q=[products]/[reactants]
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what is the ΔG in standard conditions for a reaction in relation to the equilibrium constant
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ΔG°=-RTlnKeq
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how do changes in pressure affect gases
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increase in pressure, shifts the reaction away from the side with more moles of gas
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what does it mean when IP=Ksp
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ion product=solubility product; this occurs when solution is saturated
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what is the Ksp of the equation Mg(OH)2 ->Mg+2 + 2OH-
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[x][2x^2]= 4x^3
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what is a DC current
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direct current
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what is an AC circuit
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alternating current (changing direction)
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what is the velocity for alternating current
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V=V_max*sin(ωt)
ωt=θ |
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what is RMS
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average!
Squared it, took Mean, took square Root |
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what is I_rms
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Im/sqrt2
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what is V_rms
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Vm/sqrt2
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what is the standard unit of density
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kg/m^3
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what is the density of water
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1 g/ml or 1000 kg/m^3
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what is specific gravity
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another way to report density, comparison between a substance's density to water's density
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what does it mean if a substance's density is 3
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that is density is 3000 kg/m^3
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what is the formula for specific gravity
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s.g. substance= p_substance/p_H20
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what is pressure? units?
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F/A= N/m^2= Pascals
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why dont we feel the immensity of 101,000 Pa on us
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cuz we are evolved not to and the pressure pushes back at it
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what are the 2 types of total pressures
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1-pressure at a point: in every direction
2-pressure on an object: squeezes object perpendicularly to their surfaces |
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what is gauge pressure
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pgΔh (depth from the surface)
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what is buoyant force
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the force that results from the difference in pressure of upper and lower surface
F=ρ_f*v_sub*g |
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what is the volume that is displaced equal to
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volume of the object
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what is the fraction of the object submerged
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ρ_o/ρ_f
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where does the buoyant force push
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up
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expression for when object sinks
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m_o*g>F_b
ρ_o>ρ_f |
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expression for when object rises
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ρ_f>ρ_o
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expression for when floating
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F_b=weight
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what is the volume flow rate
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Q=Av
cross-sectional area*velocity |
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what is bernoullis formula
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conservation of energy formula
P+ ρgh+ 1/2ρv^2= constant *only works for same fluid |
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how much pressure do fluids exert
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less pressure
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what formula does young's modulus relate to
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F=kx
k=Y, x=Delta L/L F=F/A |
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what is young's modulus (Y)?
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Y=toughness
stress/strain; (F/A)/(DeltaL/L) |
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what is bulk modulus
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B=(F/A)/(ΔV/V)
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what is the shear modulus
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modulus of rigidity; can move jello without the bottom moving=high shear modulus
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what is the normal
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the line drawn perpendicular to the surface at the point of intersection
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what is the law of reflection
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θ1= θ2
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what is the n in glass
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1.5
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what is the n in water
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1.3
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what is the n in vacuum or air
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1
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what does refraction mean
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bending
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what happens when light travels from a lower to a higher n
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light bends towards the normal
(away from the surface) |
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what is a critical ray
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if light bends along the surface
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what is diffraction? when does it occur
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the spreading out, when u shine a light through the opening of a smaller wavelength than light
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what is dispersion
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the prism effect->colors split apart from each other when light enters prism
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what kind of light ray bends more
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a slower one
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