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27 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Circulatory path of blood
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Left ventricle - aorta - arteries - arterioles - capillaries - venules - veins - superior and inferior vena cava - right atrium - right ventricle - pulmonary arteries - pulmonary veins - left atrium
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vagus nerve and the heart
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The vagus nerve, which is parasympathetic, innervates the heart and the digestive system.
The vagus nerve slows the rate of heart contractions and increases digestive activity in the intestines. |
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Capillaries, hydrostatic pressure, and osmotic pressure
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As blood flows into a capillary, hydrostatic pressure is greater than osmotic pressure, and net fluid flow is out of the capillary and into the interstitium.
Although osmotic pressure remains relatively constant throughout the capillary, hydrostatic pressure drops from the arteriole end to the venule end. Thus, osmotic pressure overcomes hydrostatic pressure near the venule end of a capillary, and net fluid flow is INTO the capillary and out of the interstitial. The net result of fluid exchange by the capillaries is a 10% loss of fluid to the interstitium. |
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Where is blood pressure the highest/lowest?
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Blood pressure increases near the heart and decreases to its lowest in the capillaries.
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How might a problem in microtubule production cause problems with breathing?
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Microtubules are found in cilia, and cilia are found in the respiratory tract - Cilia moves the mucus and dust back toward the pharynx, so that it may be removed by spitting or swallowing.
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The oxygen dissociation curve is shifted to the right by?
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An increase in carbon dioxide pressure, hydrogen ion concentration, or temperature.
A shift to the right indicates a lowering of hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen. |
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Effect of carbon monoxide on the oxygen dissociation curve
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Carbon monoxide has more than 200 times greater affinity for hemoglobin than does oxygen but shifts the curve to the left.
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How does the body compensate for acidosis (too much acid in the blood)?
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Increases the breathing rate thereby expelling carbon dioxide and raising the pH of the blood.
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What effect does nitrogen have on the body?
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Nitrogen is extremely stable due to its strong triple bond (remember your chemistry!).
Thus, nitrogen diffuses into the blood, but does not react with the chemicals in the blood. However, people diving must be careful. As pressure increases with depth, more nitrogen diffuses into the blood. When divers come back up and the pressure decreases, the gas volume increases. If they don't allow enough time for the nitrogen to diffuse out of the blood and into the lungs, the nitrogen will form bubble, which can block vessels causing decompression sickness. |
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Two types of acquired immunity
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humoral immunity
cell-mediated immunity |
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Humoral immunity
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Also B-cell immunity and is promoted by B lymphocytes, which differentiate and mature in the bone marrow and the liver.
Each B lymphocyte is capable of making a single type of antibody which it displays on its membrane. Humoral immunity is effective against bacteria, fungi, parasitic protozoans, viruses, and blood toxins. |
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Cell-mediated immunity
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Involves T-lymphocytes, which mature in the thymus.
T-lymphocytes that are not destroyed differentiate into helper T cells, memory T cells, suppressor T cells, and killer T cells. Cell-mediated immunity is effective against infected cells. |
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Summarize what happens with a bacterial infection
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Inflammation first. Macrophages, then neutrophils, engulf the bacteria.
Interstitial fluid is flushed into the lymphatic system where lymphocytes wait in the lymph nodes. Macrophages process and present the bacterial antigens to B lymphocytes. With the help of Helper T cells, B lymphocytes differentiate into memory cells and plasma cells. The plasma cells produce antibodies, which are released into the blood to attack the bacteria. A single antibody is specific for a single antigen, and a single B lymphocyte produces only one antibody type. |
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Type A blood
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The red blood cell membrane has A antigens and does not have B antigens.
Of course, if the erythrocytes have A antigens, the immune system does not make A antibodies. |
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Type O blood
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Has neither A nor B antigens, and makes both A and B antibodies.
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Rh factor and pregnancy
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Rh factor is a concern during the pregnancy of and Rh-negative mother with an Rh-positive fetus.
For the first pregnancy, the mother is not exposed to fetal blood until giving birth and problems are rare. Upon exposure, the mother develops an immune response against the Rh-positive blood. In a second pregnancy, the second fetus that is Rh-positie may be attacked by the antibodies of the mother, which are small enough to pass the placental barrier. This can be life threatening. |
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tendon
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connects muscle to bone
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ligament
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connects bone to bone
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sarcoplasmic reticulum
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Sarcomeres are positioned end to end to form a myofibril, and each myofibril is surrounded by the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
The lumen of the sarcoplasmic reticulum is filled with calcium ions. |
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thick filaments
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The thick filament of a sarcomere is made of the protein myosin.
Several long myosin molecules wrap around each other to form one thick filament. |
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thin filament
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The thin filament is composed mainly of a polymer of the globular protein actin.
Attached to the actin are the proteins troponin and tropomyosin. |
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What is the role of calcium in muscle contraction?
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In the presence of calcium, troponin pulls the tropomyosin back, exposing the active site, allowing the myosin head to bind to the actin.
At the end of each cycle, calcium is actively pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. |
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T-tubules
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The action potential moves deep into the muscle cell via small tunnels in the membrane called T-tubules.
T-tubules allow for a uniform contraction of the muscle by allowing the action potential to spread through the muscle cell more rapidly (this action potential is transferred to the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which suddenly becomes permeable to calcium ions). |
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Osteoblasts
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Secrete collagen and organic compounds upon which bone is formed.
As osteoblasts release matrix materials around themselves, they become enveloped by the matrix and differentiate into osteocytes. |
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Osteocytes
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Osteocytes exchange nutrients and waste materials with the blood.
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Osteoclasts
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Resorb bone matrix, releasing minerals back into the blood.
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Functions of bone
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Support of soft tissue
Protection of internal organs Movement Stores calcium and phosphate, helping to maintain a consisten concentration of these ions in the blood. Stores energy in the form of fat. Site of blood cell formation. |
