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75 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Where are most of the macromolecules converted to the monos |
At the brush border enzymes
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What is produced during the blastophore and gastrulation concerning the digestive system
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The blastopore is the anus
The gastrulation is the GI Tract |
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What are the layers of the GI Tract, start from the inner most layer
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Mucosa-protection, digest and absorb our food, screte goblet cells
Submucosa--enteric nervous, blood and lymph, where things of digestion are picked up Smooth muscle- inner (circular) -mixing of food outer (longitudinal)-perstalis Serosa-connective tissue |
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What kind of muscle is the GI Tract
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The GI tract is smooth
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What assist in making the GI tract move
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The hormones
The enteric nervous system Sponatneous depolarization Parasympathetic |
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What is the difference between exocrine and endocrine
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The endocrine will exit into bloodstream and the exocrine will exit via ducts
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What enzymes would you find in the mouth (think of what you break up)
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You would find amylase, lipase and lysozyme. There is no breakup of proteins in the mouth
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Where do you start the breakdown of proteins
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In the stomach
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Go over the features of the stomach. What they do and there name
Rugae- Pyloric Spinchter 3rd Muscle layer |
The 3rd muscle layer is for mixing
Rugae for foling Pyloric spinchter-Release food to small intestine (controlled by strecthing of small intestine, via horomones (Cholecystokinin) and the nerves connectining stomach to duondenum |
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What are the main enzymes in the stomach and where are they relased and their functions
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HCl, released by the perital cells. They convery pepsinogen to pepsin because HCl makes an acidic environment
Pepsin which is excreted by Chief Cells Gastrin which are released in the G cells and cause acidity and pepsin secretion (stimulate perital cells) |
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What is the primary role of villi in the Duodenum
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This will increase surface area and increase absorbtion
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What are two things emptied into duodenum
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Bile (made up of cholestorol in liver and stored in gallbladder)
Digestive enzymes and bicarbonate from the pancreatic duct |
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What are two main enzymes in the small intestine
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The enterokinase-trypsinogen to trypsin |
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What are the three main hormones in duodenam
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CCK-stimulate pancreas to relase enzymes, decrease gastric motility, stimulate bile release
Secretin- make pancreas release bicarb in water, keep the duodenal neutral Enterogastrone-decrease emptying of stomach |
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What are the roles of jejum and ileum
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Special reabsorption of vitamins
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What are three ways to increase blood sugar
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• Glucagon-peptide
• Epi-amino acid derivative • Cortisol- steroid |
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Do brush border enzymes break down fats
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No
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What is the main role of small intestine
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Digestion and absorbtion
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What is the main role of the large intestine
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Absorb water
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What causes the pancreas to secrete enzymes?
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CCK-Hormone
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Can the liver and skeletal muscles store glucose?
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Yes
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What is the main role of the liver?
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To help in the absorbiton of nutrients, i.e help in because of the hepatic portal system-
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3 Predominant types of RNA
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rRNA
tRNA mRNA |
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Why additional forms of RNA?
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Serve enzymatic functions
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Transcription
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The process that uses DNA as a template to synthesize either one of the three types of RNA.
Similar to DNA replication. One strand serves as a template for RNA synthesis. Same base pairing rules apply with Uracil replacing Thymine. |
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The strand of DNA that is used to synthesize RNA is termed?
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Template / Non–coding strand / Anti–sense strand.
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The strand of DNA that is not used as a template for transcription is termed?
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Coding strand / sense strand
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Formation of an RNA polymer in transcription is catalyzed by what enzyme?
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RNA Polymerases.
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RNA Polymerase is similar to DNA Polymerase in that both add __________ to _' end of growing chain |
nucleotides to the 3' end of the growing chain.
Therefore the new nucleic acid molecule is synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction. |
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Adenine and Guanine pair with:
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Cytosine and Uracil.
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An RNA molecule is complementary to which DNA template strand? |
Non–coding, and is identical (except for uracil) to the coding strand.
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Transcription differs from DNA replication in that it:
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Produces a single–stranded end product |
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3 Predominant types of RNA
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rRNA
tRNA mRNA |
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Why additional forms of RNA?
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Serve enzymatic functions
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Transcription
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The process that uses DNA as a template to synthesize either one of the three types of RNA.
Similar to DNA replication. One strand serves as a template for RNA synthesis. Same base pairing rules apply with Uracil replacing Thymine. |
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The strand of DNA that is used to synthesize RNA is termed?
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Template / Non–coding strand / Anti–sense strand.
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The strand of DNA that is not used as a template for transcription is termed?
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Coding strand / sense strand
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Formation of an RNA polymer in transcription is catalyzed by what enzyme?
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RNA Polymerases.
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RNA Polymerase is similar to DNA Polymerase in that both add __________ to _' end of growing chain
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nucleotides to the 3' end of the growing chain.
Therefore the new nucleic acid molecule is synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction. |
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Adenine and Guanine pair with:
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Cytosine and Uracil.
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An RNA molecule is complementary to which DNA template strand?
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Non–coding, and is identical (except for uracil) to the coding strand.
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Transcription differs from DNA replication in that it:
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Produces a single–stranded end product
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sp hybridization
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1s and 1p,
50% s character, 50% p character, linear, 180 degree angles, 2 attached atoms/lone pairs |
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sp2 hybridization
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1 s, 2 p
33%s character, 67% p character trigonal planar, 120 degree angles, 3 attached atoms/lone pairs |
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sp3 hybridization
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1s 3 p
25% s character, 75%p character, tetrahedral, 109.5 degree angles, 4 attached atoms/lone pairs |
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saturated molecule
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no pi bonds, no rings
2n+ 2 H atoms (n = number of C) |
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degree of unsaturation
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2n+2–x/2
n= number of carbons, x=H or (F,Cl,Br,I), subtract N from x, ignore O |
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resonance
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delocalized electrons
delocalization of the electrons stables the molecule due to electrons moving between nonhybridized p–orbitals |
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acidity and s character
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acidity increases with more s character
sp3 < sp2 < sp |
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acidity and resonance
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If the conjugate base has resonance, the molecule is more acidic
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Induction
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Electronegativity of nearby atoms causes electrons to shift. The shifts occur through sigma bonds
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Types of reaction intermediates |
1. Carbocations |
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Carbocations |
Reaction intermediate, positively charged species with a full positive charge on carbon.
Will be sp2 hybridized with an empty p orbital |
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Carbocation stability |
tertiary > secondary > primary > methyl
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Alkyl radicals |
Reaction intermediates that contain one unpaired electron, electron deficient.
Will be sp2 hybridized with an unpaired electron in an un-hybridized p orbital. |
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Alkyl radical stability |
tertiary > secondary > primary > methyl
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Carbanions |
Reaction intermediates with a full negative charge on carbon. |
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Carbanion stability |
methyl > primary > secondary > tertiary |
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Electron withdrawing groups |
Groups that are more electronegative than carbon pull electron density toward them through sigma bonds.
They tend to stabilize electron rich intermediates (carbanions). |
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Electron donating groups |
Groups that are less electronegative than carbon tend to donate electrons.
Tend to stabilize electron–deficient intermediates (carbocations, radicals). On the MCAT: alkyl substituents. |
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Homolytic cleavage |
One electron of the bond broken goes to each fragment of the molecule, creating 2 radicals. |
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Heterolytic cleavage |
Both electrons go to the same atom, forming a cation and anion |
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Isomers |
Different compounds having the same molecular formula. |
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Structural/constitutional Isomers
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Different connectivity (same molecular formula), |
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Conformational Isomers
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Different rotation about a sigma bond (same connectivity, same molecular formula),
Same physical and chemical properties, cannot be isolated, NEWMAN projections (anti/gauche) |
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Stereoisomers
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Differ in spatial arrangement (same molecular formula and connectivity)
Two types of stereoisomers: diasteriomers, enantiomers |
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Enantiomers
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type of stereoisomer (different spatial arrangement),
1. Have at least one chiral center, 2. Each isomer has opposite configuration (R,S), inversion of every stereocenter in molecule, 3. Each isomer has equal optical rotation but opposite sign (+/–), 5. All other chemical properties are the same |
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Racemic mixture
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50:50 mixture of enantiomers,
achiral, no optical activity, process of separating enantiomers is called resolution |
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Diastereomers
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type of stereoisomer, nonsuperimposable, non mirror–images,
differ in absolute configuration of at least one (but not all) carbons, physical and chemical properties can be very different, specific rotation is different but there is no relationship |
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Epimers
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Subclass of diastereomers,
inversion of only ONE stereocenter, all epimers are diastereomers (not all diastereomers are epimers) |
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Absolute configuration
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R or S assignment of chiral centers
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Relative configuration
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D or L assignment based on hydroxyl (–OH) group on the highest numbered chiral center in a Fischer projection.
D: hydroxyl group is on the right, L: hydroxyl group is on the left |
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Anomers
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Epimers that form as a result of ring closure.
Only with regards to sugar chemistry, New stereocenter is formed at anomeric carbon, named alpha (OH group down) or beta (OH group up) |
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Meso compound
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An internal plane of symmetry in a molecule that contains chiral centers.
Not optically active, type of stereoisomer |
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Geometric Isomer
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Diastereomers that differ in orientation of substituents around a ring or double bond, |
