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47 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Formula for Osmotic Pressure
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Pi = MiRT |
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When a cell is placed in a hypotonic, isotonic, hypertonic solution, what happens?
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- iso: no change - hyper: water goes out to more concentrated solution outside cell |
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If a protein has NO signal peptide but has a localization signal, where does it?
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- translation occurs in cytoplasm - localization signal sends it to mitochondria, peroxisomes, and mitochondria - without localization, stays in cytoplasm |
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With signal peptide, where can protein go?
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- if it has transmembrane domain, it goes to the cell membrane - without targeting signal and transmembrane domain, it goes outside the cell |
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Channels vs. Carriers
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- both are passive, facilitated diffusion - channels are narrow openings that could be unregulated (ex. leak channels), voltage-gated, or ligand-gated - carriers change shape to allow substances through (ex. antiports, symports, uniports) |
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To track n and x in mitosis, where do you look?
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- to track x, use how many strands are attached to a centromere; in anaphase, you are 1x |
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Describe the steps in apoptosis
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2) Cyt C is released form the intermembrane space of mitochnodria 3) Triggers apoptosome assembly via caspace activation from procaspace (zymogen) 4) Caspace disassembles the cytoskeleton first, changing its outer appearance for phygocyte detection; causes DNA, protein, organelle degradation 5) Cell is phagocytosed |
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How do mutations lead to cancer? |
- by increasing oncogene expression and decreasing tumour suppressor expression |
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What are proto-oncogenes/ oncogenes?
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- oncogenes: turn normal cells into cancerous cells; arise from proto-oncogenes that were converted via mutations/mutagens |
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How do tumour suppressors work? Name one example.
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- ex. is p53 protein |
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How do caspaces work exactly?
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- initiator caspaces: cluster together upon detection of death signal, leading to activation of effector caspaces: which cleave the protein |
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What is oxidative stress?
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- oxygen leads to peroxides and radicals, which cause damage and activation of oncogenes - however, O2- are also used by phagocytes to kill pathogens |
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What is regenerative capacity? |
- lack of regulation can lead to tumours |
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What is senescence? |
- normally, measured by telomere length - older cells are prone to apoptosis |
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What are some signs of cancer in cells?
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2) Mutation accumulation, leading to genome instability 3) Sustained Proliferation because telomerase keeps on adding new DNA 4) Apoptosis resistance |
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How does a benign tumour lead to the cancer? |
2) metastasis 3) cancer |
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When does synapsis/crossing over occur in meiosis? |
Prophase I
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Which is worse: non-disjunction in Anaphase I or II?
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- Anaphase II produces 2 cells with 1n, 1 cell with 2n, and 1 cell with 0n |
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Which protein mediates synpasis?
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- SYP2 and SYP3 attach to each homologous chromosome; then they attach to the same central element made of SYP1, forming a zipper-like structure |
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What genotype(s) and phenotype(s) arises from AA x aa?
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Pheno: 100% A |
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What genotype(s) and phenotype(s) arises from AA x Aa?
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Pheno: 100% A |
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What genotype(s) and phenotype(s) arises from Aa x aa? |
Geno: 50% Aa, 50% aa Pheno: 50% A, 50% a |
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What genotype(s) and phenotype(s) arises from Aa x Aa?
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Geno: 25% AA, 50% Aa, 25% Aa Pheno: 75% A, 25% a |
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What genotype(s) and phenotype(s) arises from AaBb x aabb?
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Geno: 25% each of AaBb, aaBb, aabb, Aabb Phenotype: 25% AB, 25% aB, 25% ab, 25% Ab |
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What phenotype arises from AaBb x AaBb? |
9 A-B-; 3 A-bb; 3 aaB-; 1 aabb |
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What is incomplete dominance?
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- blending in heterozygotes |
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What is co-dominance? |
- both show up (ex. blood types) |
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What is epistatis? |
when one gene controls expression of other (ex. one gene controls expression of colour, without it the gene that controls the actual colour is not expressed) |
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What is pleiotropism?
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When the expression of a gene affects a seemingly unrelated aspect of phenotype |
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What is polygenism? |
- when a complex trait is influenced by many genes (ex. height) |
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What is penetrance?
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- some have age-penetrated penetrance, where depending on their age, the expression of the gene changes - some also affected by environment (ex. women with BRC1 gene) |
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What are recessive lethal alleles?
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- when present is homozygous recessive, organism will die |
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What does linkage mean? |
- two genes in the same chromosome are less than 50mu apart; this decreases the probability of crossing over (the more apart, the more crossing over or recombination) |
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How is recombination frequency calculated? |
#recombinants/sample total |
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What does the RF tell us?
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- the frequency is directly related to the distance between genes; 3% RF means 3mu |
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What does Hardy-Weinberg state and its assumptions?
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- combination of alleles in gamete can change but not the frequency of an allele as a whole |
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How long does it take for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium to be reached?
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1 generation |
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100 homo yellow and 100 homo green peas are mated to produce 1000 green plants, did the yellow disappear? What is yellow's frequency? |
No. The yellow allele is just hidden in the heterozygous form and its frequency is 50% as in the parents
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If F1 green are mated randomly, what happens to frequency of yellow after 5 generations?
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Still 50% because Hardy-Weinberg principle still applies. |
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What is fitness? |
- it is increased by having more children that can also pass on those genes (either by having many children or having few but really nurturing them to ensure their survival) |
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Can natural selection act on traits that were transduced on mice?
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No. Natural selection only acts on heritable traits.
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Are bacterial and eukaryotic flagella homologous or analogous structures?
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Analogous because they serve same functions but do not descent from common ancestry |
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How does neuron repolarization occur?
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2) VG-K+ channels opens, making inside negative, even overshooting it to -90mV 3) K leak and ATPase also continue working the entire time to bring it to resting |
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What are the three states of the VG-Na+ channels?
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-OPEN: occurs only at -50mV - INACTIVE: +35mv until resting is reached -CLOSED: at rest |
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When does absolute refractory work? Relative refractory?
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Relative: from close to end of hyperpolarization (when resting voltage is stabilized) |
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What makes myelin? |
- Schwann cells in PNS and oligodendrocytes in CNS |
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Where is myelination found?
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- in all of CNS; in some PNS |
