Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
65 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Granular leukocytes |
Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Function = to fight off microbes |
|
|
Agranulocytes |
Lymphocytes Monocytes Function = important in the specific immune response |
|
|
Lymphocytes |
B-cells T-cells Responsible for antibody production, immune system modulation, targeted killing of infected cells |
|
|
Monocytes |
Serve as nonspecific sanitation wooers that travel the body picking up debris, both foreign and domestic |
|
|
Innate/nonspecific immune response |
The responses cells can cary out without learning |
|
|
Adaptive/specific immune response |
Developed as immune cells learn to recognize and respond to particular antigens |
|
|
Humoral immunity |
Part of specific immunity Driven by B-cells and antibodies |
|
|
Cell-mediated immunity |
Part of specific immunity Driven by T-cells |
|
|
Innate immune system cells |
Macrophages - engulfs and consumes pathogen invaders Mast cells - release histamine and other chemicals that promote inflammation Granulocytes - Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils - participate in the inflammatory response Dendritic cells - present antigens (fragments of protein or other molecules form pathogens or cancer cells) to adaptive immune cells, inducing cells to attack bearers of the displayed antigens Natural killer cells - Destroy the body's own cells that have become infected with pathogens; also go after cancer cells |
|
|
Adaptive immune system cells |
B-cells: antigens stimulate these cells to divide and produce antibodies that neutralize invaders or tag them for killing T-cells: destroy infected cells in which they detect the presence of antigens. Other T-cells (helper and regulatory types) coordinate the immune response |
|
|
Helper T-cels |
Coordinate the immune response by secreting lymphokines - chemicals that are capable of recruiting other immune cells and increasing their activity
|
|
|
Killer (cytotoxic) T-cells |
Capable of directly killing virally infected cells by secreting toxic chemicals |
|
|
Suppressor T-cells |
Help to tone down the immune response once infection has been adequately contained |
|
|
Lymphatic system |
A type of circulatory system; made up of one-way vessels that become larger as they move toward the heart; parallels the venous system
Collects fluid from the interstitial space and then returns it to the cardiovascular circulation |
|
|
Lacteals |
The smallest lymphatic vessels; collect fats in the form of chlyomicrons form the villi in the small intestine and deliver them into the bloodstream, bypassing the liber |
|
|
Lymph nodes |
Swellings along the lymphatic vessels that contain immune cells (primarily B-cells); provide a place for antigens from microbes to first interact with the adaptive immune system and allow its activation - allows for fluid to be checked for pathogens before being returned to the cardiovascular system |
|
|
Plasma cells |
Daughter cell of B-cell produced in response to exposure to the correct antigen Component of humoral immunity Produce large amounts of antibodies
|
|
|
Memory cells |
Daughter cell of B-cell produced in response to exposure to a specific antigen Component of humoral immunity Stay in the lymph nodes for use upon being re-exposed to the same antigen |
|
|
Thyroid hormones |
Produced by follicular cells of the thyroid Thyroxine Triiodothyronine Capable of resetting the basal metabolic rate of the body by making energy production more or less efficient, and altering the utilization of glucose and fatty acids |
|
|
Hypothyroidism |
Thyroid hormones are secreted in insufficient amounts or not at all Characterized by lethargy, decreased body temperature, slowed respiratory and heart rate, cold intolerance, and weight gain |
|
|
Hyperthyroidism |
May result from a tumor or thyroid overstimulation Produces an excess of thyroid hormones Heightened activity level, increased body temperature, increased respiratory and heart rate, heat intolerance, and weight loss |
|
|
Calcitonin |
Acts to decrease plasma calcium levels in 3 ways: 1) Increase excretion from the kidneys 2) Decrease absorption form the gut 3) Increase storage in the bone
High levels of calcium in the blood stimulate secretion of calcitonin from the C-cells |
|
|
Parathyroid glands |
Produce parathyroid hormone - an antagonistic hormone to calcitonin - functions to increase plasma levels of calcium by: 1) Decreasing excretion of calcium through the kidneys 2) Increasing reabsorption of calcium in the gut 3) Increasing bone resorption
Also converts vitamin D to its active form - required for the absorption of calcium in the gut Subject to feedback inhibition - as levels f plasma calcium rise, PTH secretion is decreased |
|
|
Hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex |
Glucocorticoids: cortisol and cortisone Mineralocorticoids: aldosterone - causes increased reabsorption of sodium and thereby water, can also affect levels of potassium and hydrogen ions- enhances secretion into the tubule (excretion) Cortical sex hormones - androgens (male sex hormones) |
|
|
Alpha cells of the pancreas |
Secrete glucagon |
|
|
Beta cells of the pancreas |
Secrete insulin |
|
|
Delta cells of the pancreas |
Secrete somatostatin |
|
|
Type I diabetes mellitus |
Caused by auto-immune destruction of the beta cells of the pancreas; these individuals produce little to no insulin |
|
|
Type II diabetes mellitus |
A result of the body resisting the effects of insult in at its receptor (insulin insensitivity/resistance) |
|
|
Somatostatin |
An inhibitor of both insulin and glucagon
High blood glucose and amino acid concentrations stimulate its secretion |
|
|
Testes |
Under the control of FSH and LH FSH stimulates the Sertoli cells and is necessary for sperm maturation LH causes interstitial cells to produce testosterone |
|
|
Ovaries |
Under the control of FSH and LH Produce estrogens and progesterone |
|
|
Estrogens |
Secreted in response to elevated FSH and LH Lead to thickening of the endometrium each month in preparation for implantation of the zygote Responsible for the development and maintenance of secondary female sexual characteristics |
|
|
Progesterone |
Secreted in response to LH stimulation Responsible for the development and maintenance (but not generation) of the endometrium
|
|
|
Menstrual Cycle |
Controlled by the relative levels of estrogen and progesterone |
|
|
Follicular phase |
Begins with menstrual flow (shedding of the uterine lining) GnRH secretion from the hypothalamus increases in response to the lower levels of estrogen and progesterone Higher levels of GnRH cause increased secretions of both FSH and LH FSH and LH work to develop several ovarian follicles - produce estrogen which has a negative feedback effect causing the GnRH, FSH, and LH levels to level off Estrogen works to regrow the endometrial lining |
|
|
Ovulation |
Late in the follicular phase, the developing follicles secrete more and more estrogen Estrogen concentrations reach a level that results in positive feedback, and GnRH, LH, and FSH levels spike Surge in LH induces ovulation - the release of the ovum form the ovary into the abdominal cavity |
|
|
Luteal Phase |
LH causes the ruptured follicle to form the corpus luteum Corpus luteum secretes progesterone Progesterone maintains the uterine lining for implantation Progesterone levels now begin to rise, while estrogen levels remain high High levels of estrogen and progesterone cause negative feedback on GnRH, FSH, and LH Prevents the development of multiple ova in the same cycle |
|
|
Menstruation |
If implantation does not occur, human chorionic gonatotropin will not be made Without hCG to stimulate the corpus luteum, progesterone levels decline, and the uterine lining is sloughed off The loss of high levels of estrogen and progesterone removes the block on GnRH so that the next cycle can begin |
|
|
Corpus luteum |
Release estrogens and progesterone |
|
|
Ovarian follicles |
Release estrogens |
|
|
Menstrual cycle (Overview) |
1) Follicles mature during the follicular phase (FSH, LH) 2) LH surge at midcycle triggers ovulation 3) Ruptured follicle becomes corpus luteum and secretes estrogen and progesterone to build up uterine lining in preparation for implantation; LH and FSH are inhibited 4)If fertilization does not occur, corpus luteum atrophies, progesterone and estrogen levels decrease, menses occurs, and LH and FSH levels begin to rise again |
|
|
Pregnancy |
If fertilization has occurred, the corpus luteum will be maintained by the presence of hCG, which is secreted by the blastocyst and the developing placenta |
|
|
Menopause |
Results from decreased responsiveness of the ovaries to FSH an LH Fewer follicles will begin to develop each month, and some may fail to rupture The decreased response to FSH and LH results in decreased levels of estrogen and progesterone FSH and LH lose their feedback inhibition, so their plasma concentrations are usually increased |
|
|
Pineal Gland |
Secretes melatonin; involved in circadian rhythms |
|
|
Hormones secreted by the kidneys |
Erythropoietin - stimulates bone marrow to increase the production of erythrocytes
|
|
|
Theory: Punctuated Equilibrium |
Suggests that changes in some species occur in rapid bursts rather than evenly over time |
|
|
Homologous structures |
Similar in structure and share a common evolutionary origin, even if they don't have a similar appearance, shape, or form (bat wings, human forearm, whale flippers) |
|
|
Analogous structures |
Serve a common purpose but evolved separately in each species (bird wings and insect wings) |
|
|
Vestigial structures |
Remnants of organs that have lost their ancestral function (humans: coccyx - tailbone, appendix) |
|
|
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium criteria |
1) The population is very large 2) There are no mutations that affect the gene pool 3) Mating between individuals in the population is random 4) There is no net migration of individuals into or out of the population 5) The genes in the population are all equally successful at reproducing |
|
|
Genetic drift |
Changes in the composition of the gene pool due to chance; tends to be more pronounced in small populations, where it is sometimes called the founder effect
This can happen when a small population of a species finds itself in reproductive isolation form other populations as a result of natural barriers or catastrophic events |
|
|
Gene flow |
Migration of individuals between populations will result in a loss or gain of genes and, thus, change the composition of a population's gene pool |
|
|
Stabilizing selection |
Works to keep phenotypes within a specific range by eliminating extremes (human birth weight) |
|
|
Directional selection |
Adaptive pressure leads to the emergence and dominance of an initially extreme phenotype (antibiotic resistance in bacteria) |
|
|
Disruptive selection |
Both extreme phenotypes are selected over the norm (dominance of large and small beak sizes, no medium-sized beaks) |
|
|
Inclusive fitness |
The number of alleles that an individual passes on to the next generation, even if only indirectly through altruistic behavior |
|
|
Hybrid Inviability |
Genetic incompatibilities between two species abort hybrid zygote development |
|
|
Hybrid Sterility |
Hybrid offspring are sterile and thus incapable of producing functional gametes |
|
|
Hybrid Breakdown |
First-generation hybrids are viable and fertile, but second-generation hybrid offspring are inviable and/or infertile |
|
|
Adaptive Radiation |
When a single ancestral species gives rise to a number of different species; each species diverges to the point that it is able to occupy a unique ecological niche |
|
|
Convergent Evolution |
The independent development of similar characteristics in two or more lineages not sharing a recent common ancestor |
|
|
Divergent evolution |
The independent development of dissimilar characteristics in two or more lineages sharing common ancestry |
|
|
Parallel evolution |
The process whereby related species evolve in similar ways for a long period of time in response to analogous environmental pressures |
|
|
Origin of Life |
The very early Earth contained high amounts of elemental carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen as well as a small amount of oxygen in what is referred to as the primordial soup
From the primordial soup, the earliest amino acids can be formed and aggregated into protobionts
Genetic material likely evolved first as short, self-replicating strands of RNA |
