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253 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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fundamental unit of length in metric system.
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meter. meter originally intended to be 1/10,000,000 of the earth's meridian that passes through Paris.
This distance was fixed by two marks etched on a platinum-iridium rod stored at the International Bureau of Weights & Measures at Sévres, near Paris. |
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*******1 inch
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2.54 cm
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Volume
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cubic centimeter.
basic unit of volume is the cubic centimeter (cc or cm3), which is the volume of a cube with an edge one centimeter long |
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Mass
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standard unit of mass was the gram (g)
defined as one-thousandth of the mass of a platinum-iridium block kept at the International Bureau of Weights & Measures. A later conference changed the official mass unit to the kilogram |
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*******Density
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ratio of the mass of an object to its volume.
density = mass/ volume vol = mass / density mass = density x vol if density = 150 grams/ ml then = 1.5, for most substances density is grams /ml, but for gases, it is g/liter |
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Specific gravity
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Expresses the ratio between two densities. It does not have measuring units of its own, but is merely used to make comparisons.
SG = density of substance/density of water or air |
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What does SG tell us?
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Specific gravity tells us how much lighter or heavier a substance is than the standard with which it is compared.
Both substances must be compared under similar conditions of temperature and pressure. |
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Why is gravity important to anesthesia?
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The concept of gravity is important to anesthesia because it tells us which gases will be heavier than room air.
Can be used for gas inductions by flowing it over a patient’s face. |
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What gases are lighter than air?
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Nitrogen, helium, and water vapor are all lighter than air.
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What gases are heavier than air?
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Carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide are about 1.5 times heavier.
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is oxygen heavier or lighter than air?
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Oxygen is only slightly heavier than air (sp gr = 1.1)
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What is Temperature?
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Temperature is a property possessed by an object that determines the direction of heat flow when that object is placed in contact with another object.
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Freezing and Boiling pts on Celcius scale?
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The freezing point of pure water is defined as 0degrees on the Celsius scale and the boiling point is 100degreesC.
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Fahrenheit defined 0 degrees as?
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the freezing point of a solution in which he had dissolved the maximum amount of salt.
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What are the reference points on the Fahrenheit scale?
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set at 32degrees F - the freezing point of pure water and 212degrees F - the boiling point of pure water.
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*******Convert Celcius to Fahrenheit
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F = (C x 1.8) + 32
F = 9/5 C + 32 |
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********Convert Fahrenheit to Celcius
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C = (F – 32) / 1.8
C = (F-32) x 5/9 |
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The absolute on Kelvin scale is based on what?
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on the fact that when a gas cools, it contracts 1/273 of its volume per C for every degree that the temperature is lowered. Theoretically then, a gas would possess no volume at a temperature of -273C. This is termed absolute zero and is the lowest possible temperature of the universe.
K = C + 273 C = K – 273 |
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Water has a density of
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1.0 g/mL
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SG <1 and SG >1
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less dense than water, more dense than water
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Chemistry is the study of
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matter and the changes it undergoes.
Chemistry is the study of matter composition, properties and behavior at the atomic and molecular level. |
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Physics is the study of
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motion, matter and energy interaction.
Our universe has two main components. Matter Energy |
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Define Matter
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Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight
Matter can be classified as being in 3 states Solid Liquid Gas |
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Solids
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*Have definite shape
* Have definite volume - cannot be compressed * Do not flow * Possess particles that are closely interacting and tightly packed in a highly ordered system. * Motion of the particles is highly restricted. |
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Liquids
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Have no definite shape - assume the shape of their containers
Have a definite volume Exhibit flow Possess particles that are relatively close interacting and are moderately ordered Motion of the particles is moderately restricted. |
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Gases
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• Have no definite shape
• Have no definite volume * they expand indefinitely • Exhibit flow • Possess particles that are essentially independent, relatively far apart and whose motion is unrestricted. • Have low density |
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Melting point
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the temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid.
As heat is added the temperature rises. As the temperature rises, the rate of vibration of the particles increases and the particles move slightly farther apart. Finally a point is reached when the vibrating particles can no longer retain their orderly arrangement. |
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Heat of fusion
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the number of calories required to change 1 gram of solid to liquid at the melting point.
When the point is reached when the particles have moved far enough apart so as to be independent, the liquid changes to a gas (ie. it boils). Once the solid has melted, the addition of heat will cause the temperature of the liquid to rise. The particles start moving more rapidly and farther apart. |
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*******Boiling point
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the temperature at which a liquid becomes a gas
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*****Heat of vaporization
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the number of calories required to change 1 g of liquid to a gas at the boiling point
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a change which does not produce a new substance.
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Physical Change.
Physical changes occur without changing the chemical make-up of the substance undergoing the changes. Examples 1) Change of state due to temperature 2)Breaking a piece of glass 3)Dissolving sugar in water |
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what is electric current through water an example of?
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Chemical Change.
Water will break down into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas. H2O = H2 + O Started with one chemical substance and ended up with 2 new chemical substances. |
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What is the definition of chemical change?
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a change which entails the disappearance of at least one substance and the formation of at least one new substance.
1)Burning a piece of wood 2)Digestion |
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Physical properties of matter include such attributes as:
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Color
Odor Taste Hardness Density Melting point Boiling point |
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Chemical properties include such attributes as:
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reacting in air
reacting with an acid burning in a flame |
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what does physical and chemical properties tell us about the substances?
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Therefore, a physical property tells one what a substance is, and a chemical property tells one what a substance does.
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Energy
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the ability to do work
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Kinetic energy
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the energy of motion
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Potential energy
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stored energy
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Most chemical energy is a form of what?
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potential energy
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Most chemical reactions involve heat energy changes like... (2)
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1)Exothermic - heat is produced
2)Endothermic - heat must be added, (heat is absorbed). *CO2 absorbers and cement for bone cases are exothermic |
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Energy can be transformed from one form into another.
give an example. |
Burning a piece of charcoal changes its potential energy into heat energy (kinetic energy).
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********Law of Conservation of Energy
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Energy is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction.
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*****Law of Conservation of Matter
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During a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed.
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What is the take home note from the laws of conservation?
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Therefore the total weights of substances before a reaction should be the same as the weights of the products after the reaction.
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The most common form of energy
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heat
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The unit of heat measurement
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calorie
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Work is performed when ...
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a force is exerted over a distance, such as moving a weight of 1 gram a distance of 1 cm.
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Work performed depends on
.... |
the nature of the force (gravity, heat, electricity) and
the manner in which it is applied. (For example, if one object hits a second object, it changes the second object’s direction – vector – or speed.) |
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Dyne
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Force required to move a 1-gram mass 1 cm/s.
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Newton
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Force required to move a 1-kg mass 1 m/s
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what is the formula for Force (f)
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mass (m) x acceleration (a)
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what is Calorie
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the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1g of water one degree Celsius.
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Joule
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1/4.18 cal or 1 cal = 4.18J
A unit used to compare work in various energy systems (e.g., electrical, mechanical) |
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Kilocalorie
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1000 cal—used when measuring the heat energy of the body and for nutritional values of foods.
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BTU
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(British thermal unit): The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water 1 Fahrenheit
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Specific Heat
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Ratio of the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a given mass of substance 1degreeC compared with that needed to raise the same mass of water 1degC.
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Gases have two specific heats
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one where volume is retained
one where pressure is retained |
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solids and liquids have ____ specific heats, but gases have ____specific heats.
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high, low
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Inhaled cold gases require external heat to raise their temperatures to that of the body, how do they do this?
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gaining heat from either the respiratory tract or from external heating devices. (HME keeps mositure and heat in)
Similarly, vaporization will cease due to cooling unless additional external heat is applied to an anesthesia vaporizer. This too is partly due to the fact that gases/vapor have low specific heats. |
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The rapidity with which heat is conducted between molecules varies. There are three possible mechanisms.
which are?? |
conduction, radiation, and convection.
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conduction
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transfer of heat directly from one molecule to another.
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radiation or radiant heat
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transfer of heat in electromagnetic waves (microwave oven)
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convection
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transfer of heat by air currents
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order of operations
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If an equation has multiplication or division, it needs to be done before the addition or subtraction.
Work from the innermost symbol of enclosure to the outermost, multiplying and dividing then adding or subtracting. PEMDAS |
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Multiplying 2 positive or negative numbers yields a
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positive i.e. -2 x-2 = 4
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Multiplying a positive number and a negative number yields
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negative i.e. -2 x 2 = -4
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Subtracting a negative number is the same as
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adding a positive i.e. 2 - -2 = 4
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If a variable is multiplied by a number
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you need to divide both sides of the equation by that number.
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If a number is added to the variable
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subtract the variable from each side of the equation.
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solving for x
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Undo any operations that are tying up the variable by applying the inverse operation.
What ever you do to one side of the variable, you must do to the other side. |
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Fractions
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Numerator—top number
Denominator—bottom number Variable may be numerator or denominator. |
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1/4 x 1/4 =
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1/16
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1/4 / 1/4 =
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4/4 = 1
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1/4 + 1/4 =
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2/4 = 1/2
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1960 standard international meter was redefined as being 1,650,763 times the wavelength of a certain line in the visible spectrum of krypton.
1983 meter defined as .... |
the distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 sec.
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hypothermia can cause
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increased infection, decreased metabolism, decreased healing, coagulopathy, delay awakening, shivering, decreased CO2, increases HR and SV, and PVR
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Is sunlight energy or matter
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energy
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Can gases be compressed
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yes
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Matter
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Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
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Does matter have to be visible?
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No
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_____are the fundamental building blocks of matter
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Atoms
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Atoms are composed of
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protons, neutrons, electrons.
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******ATOMIC THEORY : All matter (elements) is composed of
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atoms
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*******ATOMIC THEORY : Elements are comprised of ____ kind(s) of atom
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only one
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*******ATOMIC THEORY: The atoms of a given element all exhibit identical chemical properties and have the ______ mass.
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same
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*******ATOMIC THEORY
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Dalton 1808
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Classic definition of an element
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Any basic substance made up of atoms of identical atomic (proton) structure,
that cannot further be decomposed, that loses its chemical properties by electromagnetic union with one or more other elements or through a nuclear reaction that changes its atomic (proton) configuration. |
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Periodic Table of the Elements
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The order of elements by atomic weight and electrical configuration is set out in the periodic chart.
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Key elements of the Table are: Each element exists as discrete ____ of specific configuration.
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atoms
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Key elements of the Table are:
All matter is composed of one or more _______ |
elements
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Key elements of the Table are:
Of the 88 naturally occurring elements, _____are commonly found in the human body. |
15
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Key elements of the Table are:
Non-naturally occurring elements are produced through ________ |
nuclear reactions
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Key elements of the Table are:
The table of elements is based on the _______ |
carbon-12 isotope.
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protons: weight and charge?
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+, weight of 1
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neutron : weight and charge?
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no charge, weight of 1
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electrons: weight and charge?
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negative, small weight (don't count)
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Bromine
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Br, 35, 79.9
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Calcium
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Ca, 20, 40.0
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******Carbon
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C, 6 atomic #, 12.0 atomic weight
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Chlorine
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Cl, 17, 35.4
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Fluorine
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F, 9, 18.9
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Helium
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He, 2, 4
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********Hydrogen
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H, 1, 1
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Iodine
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I, 53, 126.9
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Iron
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Fe, 26, 55.8
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Nitrogen
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N, 7, 14.0
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********Oxygen
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O, 8, 16
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Potassium
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K, 19, 39.0
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Sodium
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Na, 11, 22.9
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Sulfar
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S, 16, 32
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Atoms of different elements have ________chemical properties.
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different. In the course of an ordinary chemical reaction, no atom of one element disappears or is changed into an atom of another element.
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Compound substances are formed when...
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are formed when atoms of more than one element combine in a fixed ratio by mass.
In a given pure compound, the relative numbers of atoms of the elements present will be definite and constant. Compounds are formed by the combination of different atoms in the ratio of small whole numbers. |
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Molecules are.....
What charge do they have? |
Groups of atoms chemically bonded together into a discrete unit by covalent bonds.
Electronically neutral. |
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Ionic Compounds
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Contain positively charged ions and negatively charged ions.
There are no identifiable discreet units in an ionic compound. All positively charged ions are attracted to all of the negatively charged ions. |
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Are Ionic compounds molecules?
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No.
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Can a substance be both a molecule and an element?
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Yes, Oxygen
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*****Law of Constant Composition
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states that a compound regardless of its origin or method of preparation, always contains the same elements in the same proportions by weight.
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******The Law of Multiple Proportions
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states that when two elements combine to form two different compounds, the weights of one which combine with a fixed weight of another are in a single ratio of whole numbers.
Ex: Elements A and B form two compounds A2B and AB. The weight of A combined with a fixed weight of B in the first compound would be twice that in the second. |
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Atoms
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The smallest particle of an element that retains the chemical properties of the element.
Composed of three basic particles Electrons—negative charge Protons—positive charge Neutrons—no charge |
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What makes up the nucleus of an atom?
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Together protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of each atom. They also have equal masses.
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Electrons
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Have a negative charge
mass of approximately 1/1800th that of the nucleus circle nucleus in various orbits of differing distances from the nucleus |
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Electron orbit significance
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The actual number of electrons in the atom’s outer orbit varies and gives the atom its electrical properties, i.e., how readily it will donate, accept, or share electrons with other elements to form new substances.
These electron “orbits” are also called energy levels because the rate and vector of electron travel varies in distance and energy. |
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Atomic Number
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This number refers to the number of protons or electrical charges of an atom.
The number goes up as one proceeds up the periodic table from the simplest, most abundant of the elements, hydrogen. So where hydrogen has one proton, the next two elements, helium and lithium have, respectively, two and three. The pattern continues as one proceeds to the heavier elements listed further down the periodic table. As elements go up in the number of protons, they are matched by a corresponding increase in the number of neutrons and electrons. |
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Atomic Mass Unit (AMU)
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is a standard based on the mass of carbon atom C-12.
This atom is defined as having 12 amu. The mass of every other element is established relative to the mass of carbon. E.g.. Experiments have shown that an oxygen atom is 1.33 times heavier than a carbon atom so that oxygen has a mass of 1.33 x 12 amu = 16 amu. The proton and the neutron have masses very close to 1 amu, whereas the electron is only about 1/1800 times as heavy. |
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The mass of an atom is determined by adding up the number of _______ & _______ - this is called the mass number and is symbolized by A.
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protons and neutrons
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IONS
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Under certain circumstances, it is possible to remove electrons from a neutral atom, leaving behind a positively charged particle that is somewhat smaller than the original atom.
Alternatively, electrons may be added to certain atoms to form particles that carry a negative charge. These charged particles, whether positive or negative, are called ions. |
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*******Positive ions (_____) include Na+ and Ca+2
______ characteristically lose electrons to form cations. |
cations, metals
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******Negative ions (______) include F- and Cl-.
_______frequently gain electrons to give anions. |
anions, nonmetals
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Quaternary ammonium compounds are ....
why are they different? ? |
molecules that contain at least one atom of nitrogen and that carry a positive charge at all times.
The constant charge on these compounds results from atypical bonding to the nitrogen. In most nitrogen-containing compounds, the nitrogen atom bears only three chemical bonds. |
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What is the significance of the Quaternary ammonium compounds' + charge?
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the nitrogen atoms of quaternary ammonium compounds have four chemical bonds. It is because of the fourth bond that quaternary ammonium compounds always carry a positive charge. Therefore, because of the charge, these compounds are unable to cross most physiologic membranes.
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_______an old muscle relaxant is representative of the quaternary ammonium compounds.
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Tubocurarine, In purified form, Tubocurarine was employed by anesthesia providers as a muscle relaxant; whereas a crude preparation (curare) was used by South American Indians as an arrow poison.
It induced paralysis of the skeletal muscles, including the diaphragm, thereby causing death by asphyxiation. Interestingly, even though meat from animals killed with curare is laden with the compound (or drug), it can be eaten without ill effects. The reason is that since curare is a quaternary ammonium compound, it cannot cross membranes, and therefore, cannot be absorbed from the intestine. |
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Give examples of Quaternary ammonium compounds that we use...
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The other non depolarizing muscle relaxants are also quaternary compounds.
Also, Robinul. |
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Electron Shells
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Ist = 2 electrons
2nd = 8 |
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metals
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most elements of the periodic table are metals, maliable, conduct electricity and heat, and on the L side of the table.
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non metals
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on the R side of the table, can be solid, liquid, or gas, generally do not conduct electricty, they are brittle.
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pH Dependent Ionization of Drugs
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Unlike the quaternary ammonium compounds (muscle relaxants for example), which always carry a charge, many drugs can exist in either a charged or an uncharged form.
Many drugs are either weak organic acids or weak organic bases. Weak acids and bases can exist in charged and uncharged forms. Whether a weak acid or base will or will not carry a charge is determined by the pH of the surrounding medium. |
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*******ACID
proton donor or acceptor? |
An acid is defined as a compound that can give up a hydrogen ion (proton).
An acid is a proton donor. |
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*******BASE
proton donor or acceptor? |
A base is the opposite of an acid, being defined as a compound that can take up a hydrogen ion.
A base is a proton acceptor. |
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Ionization
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When an acid gives up its proton, which is positively charged, the acid itself becomes negatively charged. Conversely, when a base accepts a proton, the base then becomes positively charged. Because the process of an acid giving up a proton or a base accepting a proton converts the acid or the base into a charged particle (ion), the process for either an acid or base is termed ionization.
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The extent to which a weak acid or weak base will ionize is determined by the pH of its environment.
2 rules apply. .... |
1) acids tend to ionize in basic (alkaline) media
2) bases tend to ionize in acidic media. |
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Discuss the ionization of ASA.
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An example of the pH-dependent ionization of drugs will illustrate the importance of this phenomenon. Aspirin, a weak acid, tends to give up its proton (become ionized) in basic media. Conversely, aspirin will not be ionized under acidic conditions.
In practical terms, this means that when aspirin is in the stomach, most of the aspirin molecules will not be ionized. Because aspirin molecules will be non-ionized in the stomach, they will be able to undergo absorption across the membranes that separate the stomach lumen from the bloodstream. In contrast, many of those aspirin molecules that pass from the stomach into the small intestine, where the environment is relatively alkaline, will change from a non-ionized into an ionized form; because of this ionization, absorption of aspirin molecules from the intestine will be impeded. |
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In an acidic pH, weak acids, such as barbiturates, exhibit a low pKa and remain in the ______ form.
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nonionized
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Weak bases, such as opioids and local anesthetics, tend to be _______at an acidic pH and ________at an alkaline pH.
At an alkaline pH, weak acids dissociate readily to the _______form. |
ionized, nonionized, ionized
When the pKa of a drug and the pH are similar, small changes in the pH can cause a large change in the degree of ionization. |
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Ion Trapping (pH Partitioning) of Drugs
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Because the ionization of drugs is pH-dependent, when the pH of the fluid on one side of a membrane differs from the pH of the fluid on the other side, drug molecules will tend to accumulate on the side of the membrane where the pH most favors their ionization.
Accordingly, since acidic drugs tend to ionize in basic media, when there is a pH difference between two sides of a membrane, acidic drugs will accumulate on the side that is more alkaline. |
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because basic drugs tend to ionize in acidic media, when there is a pH difference between two sides of a membrane, basic drugs will accumulate on the side that is more acidic. This process whereby a drug accumulates on the side of a membrane where the pH most favors ionization is referred to as ......
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ion trapping or pH partitioning.
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Ion trapping is not only of academic interest. This will be experienced when your patient becomes .....
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hypothermic (↓perfusion in periphery therefore↓ in pH), ion trapping in fetus, acidosis and narcotics.
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Discuss maternal fetal ion trapping
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Example: during the placental transfer of drugs from the mother to fetus. The fetal pH is lower than the maternal pH.
When a weak base, such as a local anesthetic, is administered to the mother and crosses the placenta, it is converted to a poorly lipid-soluble entity in the more acidic environment of the fetus. The ionized drug in the fetus cannot easily cross the placenta until it reaches equilibrium with the maternal circulation. At that time, the total drug concentration in the fetal plasma will exceed that in the mother's plasma. Accumulation of local anesthetics in the fetus has been associated with central nervous system depression and bradycardia. IONIZATION DECREASES TRANSFER ACROSS MEMBRANES |
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If the active portion of the drug is acid, the acid is listed last (sodium thiopental), and if the active portion is a base, the base is listed first (ephedrine sulfate)......ACIDS
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Sodium Thiopental
Methohexital Sodium (Brevital) |
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If the active portion of the drug is acid, the acid is listed last (sodium thiopental), and if the active portion is a base, the base is listed first (ephedrine sulfate).....BASES
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Midazolam Hydrochloride (Versed)
Morphine Sulfate Fentanyl Citrate Sufentanil Citrate (Sufenta) Alfentanil Hydrochloride (Alfenta) Remifentanil Hydrochloride (Ultiva) Tetracaine Hydrochloride (Pontocaine) Lidocaine Hydrochloride Vecuronium Bromide (Norcuron) Rocuronium Bromide (Rocuronium) |
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In an acidic drug, decreasing the pH of the solution increases the amount of ________drug.
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un-ionized .
If the active portion of the molecule is acid, when the pH is less than the pKa, more of the drug exists in the un-ionized form. Thus, in a patient with renal failure and metabolic acidosis, a greater portion of the pentothal exists in the un-ionized form, compared with the situation in a person with a normal pH. Conversely, an acid drug is more ionized in an alkaline solution than in a neutral or an acidic solution. |
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Most injectable drugs used during anesthesia are _______ ________. give examples. Major Exceptions??
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weak bases.
(local anesthetics, narcotics, muscle relaxants, and catecholamines). The major exceptions are the barbiturates (and certain other drugs discernible by their name, such as sodium nitroprusside). Alkaline drugs in an alkaline solution tend to be more un-ionized, and in an acidic solution, they tend to be more ionized. |
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Propofol pKa:
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11
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Thiopental pKa
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7.6
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Midazolam pKa
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6.15
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Atracurium pka
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1-3
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Fentanyl pka
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8.4
Fentanyl – pKa of 8.4 - @ pH of 7.4 – 91% is ionized in the blood Caught in stomach small intestine → back in blood Out of liver →bile duct →small intestine →blood Termed enterohepatic circulation -Reasons for delayed respiratory depression Enterohepatic recirculation -Storage in muscles |
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Sufentanil pka
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8
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Amidate pka
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424
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Brevital pka
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7.6-7.7
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Pancuronium pka
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1-3
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morphine pka
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7.93
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alfenta pka
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6.5
Alfenta – pKa of 6.5 = 11% of molecules are ionized @ pH of 7.4 |
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Acidic drugs: Barbiturates – highly ionized (not as much effect) at ____ _____
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basic pH
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Basic drugs: Opioids and locals – highly ionized @ _____ _____
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acidic pH
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PH – pKa = [log] of the ratio of one to the other.
difference b/t acid and base |
- with bases (proton acceptor) more than 50% ionized with pH < pKa, and less than 50% ionized when pH > pKa
- with acids (proton donor) more than 50% ionized when pH > pKa and less than 50% ionized when pH < pKa Example: an acid drug with pKa – 8.4 in blood with pH = 7.4….. -drug will be < 50% ionized and since pH – pKa = 7.4 – 8.4 = .1, the ratio is 1 x 101 or more simply 10 -putting this together there will be 10 times as much unionized as ionized, or a 10:1 ratio of unionized to ionized, or 91% unionized. (10:1 = 10/11 = 91%) |
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Isotopes
Why are they useful? |
Elements having the same atomic numbers, but different mass numbers (same Z but different A).
The element retains its chemical properties because the number of protons and electrons determines these. Because of the change in weight caused by the loss or gain of neutrons, the element will have different physical properties. Many of the radioactive isotopes are useful diagnostic tools in medicine. |
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Atomic Weight
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This is equal to the masses of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
Since protons and neutrons are equal in mass, they each represent one atomic mass unit (amu). However, the electrical charge of the nucleus is determined by the number of protons. The electrical charge of the protons is balanced by the negative charges of the electrons, so that each atom is electrically neutral. |
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the electrical charge of the nucleus is determined by the number of _____.
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protons
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Gram atomic weight (GAW)
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Weight in grams that contains the same number of atoms as 12 grams of carbon-12.
GAW is the atomic weight expressed in grams. eg: 1 GAW Hydrogen = 1.008g The number of GAW = mass atomic wt. |
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A mole is the amount of substance that contains as many elementary particles (atoms, molecules) as there are......
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atoms in 12.0 grams of carbon-12. A mole always has the same number of particles.
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Avogadro's number...what does it mean?
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23
1 mole = 6.023 x 10 particles Avogadro's number - One mole of any substance has a weight, in grams, equal to its molecular (or atomic) weight. -1 mole of water, H20 contains 6.023 x 10 23 molecules & weights 18gms -1 mole of carbon, C contains 6.023 x 10 23 molecules & weights 12gms -1 mole of glucose, C6H1206 contains 6.02 x 10 23 molecules & weights 180gms |
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The number of Gram Atomic Weight (GAW) corresponds to the number of moles, how?
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# of moles = # GAW
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Molecular Weight
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The sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule.
The molecular weight is the average mass of a molecule of the substance expressed in atomic mass units. |
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Molar Mass
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The mass of 1 mole or Avogadro's number of molecules. The molar mass in grams is numerically equivalent to the molecular weight.
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The Law of Constant Composition states that any sample of a pure compound always consists of the same elements combined in the same proportions by mass. EXPLAIN using NH3
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Every molecule of ammonia has the formula NH3. One molecule contains 1 atom of nitrogen and 3 atoms of hydrogen, or one mole of ammonia contains 1 mole of nitrogen and 3 moles of hydrogen. Therefore, one molar mass or gram molecular weight, 17.03g always contains 14.01g of N and 3.02g of H.
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Chemical Bonding
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Compounds are formed by combining and recombining the various elements, excluding those of the inert group.
Bonding is dependent primarily on the configuration of atoms of each involved element, especially the distribution of electrons on the outer shell. |
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The Theory of Octet states...
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that all elements tend to have an outer electron ring made up of exactly 8 electrons. Elements with exactly 8 outer electrons are highly stable. These include the so-called rare or noble gases. They are inert (i.e., they do not react readily with other elements.)
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Obviously, not all elements have 8 outer electrons; they may have any number from 1 to 8. Those having 4 outer electrons tend to share them readily with other elements. These are called ______substances. Carbon is the best example. Its unique properties lie at the foundation of organic chemistry.
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amphoteric
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Only elements with eight electrons on their outer shell are stable; _____ is the exception, being stable with two electrons
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helium
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Elements with one to seven electrons in their outer shells will react, almost always in a way that helps them to become more stable, that is, by trying to achieve an _____-_____outer shell.
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eight-electron
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Achieving shell stability requires one of two things to occur
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1) Outer-shell electrons are lost, allowing the element to achieve eight-electron stability in the next innermost shell
2) Enough electrons are gained from another element to obtain the required eight-electron configuration -Elements having one, two or three electrons in their outer shells tend to lose them readily, whereas elements having five, six, or seven electrons tend to take on additional electrons to achieve stability. |
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How is achieving stability energy efficient?
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Less energy is required to remove two electrons from an element's outer shell than would be required to add the necessary six needed for stability.
Conversely, less energy is required to gain one electron for an element having seven electrons in its outer shell than would be required to lose the seven electrons. |
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Each atom by itself is electrically neutral, proton charges balancing electron charges. In bonding chemically with other elements this electrical neutrality is lost, and the resulting particles are called ____
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ions
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Where electrons are lost, the particle will have a positive charge because more protons than electrons are present. These ions are called _____
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cations
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If electrons are gained, the particle will have more negative charge. These particles are called ____
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anions
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In all chemical reactions, it is always _____, never _____, that are lost or gained.
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electrons, protons
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In becoming ions, atoms lose their original ______and ______properties and develop new ones.
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physical and chemical
Example: The poisonous gas chlorine reacts with sodium to become common table salt, sodium chloride, a solid with entirely different physical and chemical properties. |
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Metals having one to three electrons in their outer shells tend to lose electrons, becoming cations in the process. The nonmetals, configured with five, six, or seven electrons in their outer shells, tend to gain electrons and become anions.
The transfer of electrons between a metal and nonmetal results in what is termed an _______ _______ |
electrovalent compound.
-The process is termed ionic bonding because each atom has, in effect, become an ion. |
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In each case of ionic bonding, the number of electrons lost by one element is always _____ to the number gained by the other element.
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equal
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_______ means simply that a given number of electrons have been transferred to form the new compound and that the two ions thus created have opposite, and therefore mutually attracted, electrical charges (anion/cation) that enable the new compound to maintain stability.
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Electro-valence
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how do Metals and nonmetals react well together
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Metals with 1, 2, or 3 outer electrons (found on the left side of the periodic table) give them up to the outer orbits of elements with 5, 6, or 7 outer electrons (nonmetals, found on the right side of the periodic table, just before the inert, or noble, gases.)
Conversely, nonmetals with 5, 6, or 7 outer electrons, tend to readily accept electrons from metal elements with 1, 2, or 3 outer electrons. In both cases, the elements are trying to achieve stability by providing 8 electrons for each element's outer orbit. In every case, the bonding takes place in the most energy-efficient manner. Such joinings produce an electrovalent compound. (This is also called ionic bonding.) |
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Substances in the mid-portion of the periodic table (called ______ elements, can behave as......
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transition , as either metals or nonmetals.
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Covalent Bonding
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sharing of electrons (covalent bonding).
In the chlorine molecule, Cl2, there has been no electron loss or gain and so there are not chloride ions present. This is one of the primary differences between ionic and covalent bonds. |
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Ionic bonding results from the ____ __ _____ of electrons.
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loss or gain
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A double covalent bond (also called a double bond) represents .....
A triple covalent bond (triple bond) represents...... |
two shared electron pairs, three shared pairs of electrons.
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What is a radical?
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The term radical describes a group of atoms that have bonded together but act as individual atoms in chemical reactions.
Radicals exhibit specific behaviors not characteristic of the atoms that constitute them |
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Many radicals are involved in bodily reactions and are thus important in anesthesia. These include:
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hydroxyl (OH)
bicarbonate (HC03) phosphate (PO4) ammonium (NH4) carbonate (C03) sulfate (S04) nitrate (N03) |
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Chemical Nomenclature
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Rules for naming chemical compounds depend on whether the substance is a molecular substance or an ionic substance.
Molecular compounds are comprised only of nonmetals. Ionic compounds are almost always comprised of a metal and a nonmetal. |
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**********Naming Molecular Compounds:
N2O NO SCl2 CCl4 |
-Name each element
-Indicate how many of each element is present with a prefix multiplier (mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa) - Add suffix “–ide” to last element name N2O—dinitrogen monoxide (nitrous oxide) NO—nitrogen monoxide (nitric oxide) SCl2—sulfur dichloride CCl4—Carbon tetrachloride |
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Naming Ions and Ionic Compunds
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-Ion is an atom or group of atoms with a charge
-Held together by ionic bonds (attraction of oppositely charged ions. -Ionic compounds sometimes called salts. (NaCl) -Salt is produced by reaction of an acid and a base |
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Electrolytes
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substance that dissolves in water to give a solution that conducts electricity.
-The few ionic compounds that readily dissolve in water are electrolytes. |
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Electricity is described as ....
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the flow of charged particles under the influence of an electric field.
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Non-electrolyte
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substance that dissolves in water to give a solution that does not conduct electricity.
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Organic chemistry
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first described by Wohler in 1828
-devoted to the study of compounds formulated from a base of carbon atoms. |
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Carbon has ____ protons and ____ electrons in its atomic structure.
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six, six
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Theory of Octet
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-Two of the electrons of carbon are in the first orbit and the remaining four in the outer orbit
-Carbon shares its outer electrons with other atoms, in pairs, forming a covalent bond -This benefits each basic atom |
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if pH of 7 what is the hydrogen ion value?
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10 to the -7
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inorganic chem = what type of bonding?
organic chem = what type of bonding? |
ionic, covalent (sharing)
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Carbon forms such bonds with many elements, including other carbon atoms. In particular, it readily combines with hydrogen atoms having one outer-orbit electron. This provides needed stability for both atoms. By sharing carbon's electrons, hydrogen assumes the stable configuration of a helium atom. Carbon and hydrogen so readily come together that they form a whole group of distinct compounds, ______
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hydrocarbons
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Methane (CH4)
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one carbon surrounded by four hydrogen atoms
H │ H────C────H │ H ALKANE |
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Ethane (C2H6)
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next most complex hydrocarbon structure is called ethane. It contains two carbon atoms that each share one electron.
H H │ │ │ │ H────C ───C────H │ │ │ │ H H Its a covalent bond (lose 2 Hs when combine) |
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*********what kind of reactions do alkanes undergo??
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halogen substitution (halogenation). It is stable so have to have a catalyst for reaction to occur, usally UV light.
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Propane (C3H8)
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has three carbon atoms linked together, hydrogen filling the remaining binding sites.
H H H I I I H ---- C C C ----- H I I I H H H |
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What do hydrocarbons break down into?
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alkenes and alkanes
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Butane
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4 carbons (C4H10)
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Pentane
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5 carbons (C5H12)
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Hextane
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6 carbons (C6H14)
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Octane
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8 Carbons (C8H18)
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Nonane
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9 carbons (C9H20)
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Decane
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10 carbons (C10H22)
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Heptane
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7 Carbons (C7H16)
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hydrocarbon series
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Note that in each case the next higher compound in the series differs from the preceding one by C-H2. This means the number of hydrogens is always twice the number of carbon atoms plus two.
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In the hydrocarbon series of straight-chain hydrocarbons, known as the _____series, each bond is accounted for by an individual atom. The hydrocarbons of this group are therefore said to be saturated. Removing a hydrogen results in the substance becoming a ________
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alkane, radical (very reactive)
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Removing a hydrogen from methane (CH4) leaves the ....
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methyl radical (CH3).
The methyl group is often encountered in organic chemistry and biochemistry. |
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Radicals are named by converting the -ane ending of the parent compound to a....
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yl ending; methane becomes methyl, propane becomes propyl, and so on. Most saturated hydrocarbons are formed from the fractional distillation of petroleum products.
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Compounds having fewer than 5 carbon atoms are ____
Those having 5 to 16 are____ those containing more than 16 carbons are ____ |
gases, liquids, solids - waxes
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*****Alkanes are generally not extremely active chemically; however, they do......
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burn readily and they do react with the halogens, especially chlorine and bromine, a fact of great importance to the development of the halogenated anesthetics.
This is why we stopped using halothane. |
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When burned, straight-chain hydrocarbons form ....
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water and carbon dioxide. Because of its limited chemical reactivity, the alkane series was formerly known as the paraffin group, paraffin meaning "little activity". They tend to be insoluble in water, whereas they are soluble in weakly polar solvents, such as ethers (and insoluble in water).
Isomers may be formed from many, but not all, alkanes having three or more carbon atoms. Same chemical, different spatial orientation. |
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The IUPAC (Geneva) System
|
To simplify the naming of substances, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) developed a system for naming organic compounds known as the Geneva system.
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Geneva: For branched-chain alkanes...
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the name is based on the longest continuous (i.e., unbranched) chain of carbons in the compound.
Say the longest continuous chain totals seven carbons. The compound is therefore a heptane. (In other words, look for the longest alkane) . |
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When naming positions of chains, (e.g., methyl group in the example), beginning at either end of the longest continuous chain, assign a number to each long-chain carbon so that the first branching occurs at the carbon with the lowest number.
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In the example on the ppt (chem III, pg3), numbering from the right would put the methyl group at carbon 5. Numbering from the left puts it at carbon 3. Branching is named from the lowest-numbered carbon atom at which branching occurs (3-methylheptane). If another methyl group occurred at carbon 4, the compound would be 3,4 methylheptane. List the numbers and names of the alkyl groups in alphabetical order.
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The terms primary, secondary, and tertiary are used to differentiate different forms of the same compound. There terms can also designate the number of direct bonds to other carbon atoms. For example, a tertiary butyl would have one carbon attached directly to three carbons of the group:
|
CH3
│ CH3────C───── │ CH3 |
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Substituents (atoms of groups) may be indicated by a
|
prefix and a number showing their position relative to the long chain. For example, 1,3,7-trimethyl nonane indicates that three methyl groups are located on the carbons at positions 1,3 and 7 of the longest chain.
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When identical groups are located on the same carbon of the main chain, numbers are supplied for each group. For example, 2,2-dimethylhexane says that two methyl groups are attached to the same carbon atom. How are the names organized?
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Hyphens and commas are used to organize the parts of the name of the substance. Hyphens always separate numbers from word parts, and commas separate numbers from numbers. The intent is to make the final name one word.
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Whenever two or more different groups are attached to the chain, several ways are acceptable for organizing the name of the compound.
|
The last portion of the compound name will be the main-chain alkane. Other parts can be ordered in terms of their increasing complexity; for example, methyl, ethyl, propyl, or they can be listed in alphabetical order.
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Cycloalkanes
|
a ring-structured saturated hydrocarbon. The one of interest to anesthesia is cyclopropane (C3H6). These ring structures are called cycloalkanes. (ppt pg 4, chem III)
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Whay are Cyclopropane is explosive
|
Ring structures require additional energy to maintain their configurations, and this explains their instability. unstable b/c bonds are strained and it explodes when they come apart.
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Alkenes -have a general formula ____
|
CnH2n. The ring structures previously described known as cycloalkanes, also have the general formula CnH2n. Alkenes and cycloalkanes have two hydrogen atoms less than alkanes. The first member of the alkane group is ethylene, and the series is sometimes called the ethylene series. Older terminology referred to them as the olefin series.
- cannot have a 1 carbon alkene. the simplest is ethylene, a 2 carbon (double bond) |
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gas ethylene has been used in anesthesia, but it was never extremely popular.
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C2H4; ethylene (ppt pg 5 Chem III)
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Alkynes
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Alkynes-Where alkanes are straight-chain aliphatic (acyclic hydrocarbon) compounds with all chemical bonds occupied, it is possible to treat these hydrocarbons chemically not only to strip off hydrogen atoms but also to produce a situation where two carbon atoms are joined by either a double or a triple bond. Those with a double bond are called alkenes; those with a triple bond are alkynes. Because of their unsaturated sites, these compounds tend to be highly reactive.
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|
|
ethyne
|
also known as acetylene, a gas used in welding.
HH C2H3 I I C------------ C This is a triple bond! |
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|
Isomers -Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structures are termed isomers. Carbon compounds facilitate isomeric structures because the carbon atom possesses the characteristic of being able to .....
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rotate its bonds about its central axis.
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Isomers are of two main types:
|
structural isomers and stereoisomers. The latter is further divided into two types: optical isomers and geometric isomers.
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******be able to draw a 9 carbon with methyl groups @ 1, 3, 7
|
do it
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Structural isomers usually differ in both physical and chemical properties from one another. examples..
|
(A classic example is isoflurane and enflurane.) The straight-chain form is known as the normal isomer.
C----C-----C-----C normal vs C I C---------C---------C isomer |
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|
Enflurane
Isoflurane |
Cl F F
I I I H---C---------C--O---C----H I I I F F F F Cl F I I I F----C -------C----O-----C-----H I I I F H F the O is the ether bridge or oxygen bridge |
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Stereoisomers have identical structural formulas but differ in their _____ _____
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spatial arrangement.
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Optical isomers occur when the groups attached to the carbon atom .....
|
differ from one another.
This causes a bending (rotation) of light passing through the substances vertical axis. light can be polarized to the L or the R |
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Speaking of isomers, When the light is polarized to the left...
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the levo (or sinister) isomer is formed. The two forms are mirror images of one another.
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Speaking of isomers, Light polarized to the right ....
|
produces a dextro isomer
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Speaking of light polarization isomers, When both forms (R and L) are mixed, no polarization of light occurs, and the mixture is termed ____
|
racemic.
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Commonly used drugs which are racemic mixtures are .....
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ketamine, epinephrine, atropine, & propranolol.
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