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132 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Qualitative Research
Provides insight into and understanding of the problem setting
--It explores the problem with few preconceived notions about the outcome of that exploration
--In addition to defining the problem and developing an approach, qualitative research also is appropriate when facing a situation of uncertainty, such as when conclusive results differ from expectations
--It can provide insight before or after the fact
--Qualitative research is based on small, nonrepresentative samples and the data are analyzed in a nonstatistical way
Qualitative Research Overview
--Objective: to gain a qualitative understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations
--Sample: small number of nonrepresentative cases
--Data Collection: unstructured
--Data Analysis: nonstatistical
--Outcome: develop a richer understanding
Quantitative Research
Seeks to quantify data and typically applies some form of statistical analysis
--It seeks evidence based on large, representative samples and typically involving some for of statistical analysis
--The findings of quantitative research can be treated as conclusive and used to recommend a final course of action
Quantitative Research Overview
--Objective: to quantify the data and generalize the results from the sample to the population of interest
--Sample: large number of representative cases
--Data Collection: structured
--Data Analysis: statistical
--Outcome: recommend a final course of action
Classification of Qualitative Research Procedures
A classification of qualitative research are classified as either direct or indirect, based on whether the respondents know the true purpose of the project
Classification of Qualitative Research
1. Direct Approach (non-disguised)
---(a). Focus Groups
---(b). In-Depth Interviews
2. Indirect Approach (disguised)
---Projective Techniques
------(a). Association Techniques
------(b). Completion Techniques
------(c). Construction Techniques
------(d). Expressive Techniques
1. Direct Approach
The purpose of the project is disclosed to the respondents or is is otherwise obvious from teh questions asked
--Focus groups and depth interviews are the major direct techniques
Focus Groups
A focus group is an interview with a small group of respondents conducted by a trained moderator who leads the discussion in a nonstructured and natural manner
--The main purpose of a focus group is to gain insights on issues of interest to the researcher by listening to a group of people from the appropriate target market
Procedure for Conducting a Focus Group
1. Design the focus group environment
2. Recruit and select focus group participants
3. Select a moderator
4. Prepare the discussion guide
5. Conduct the group interview
6. Prepare the focus-group project
Advantages of Focus Groups
--The immediacy and the richness of the comments, which come from real customers, make this technique highly useful
--The group interaction produces a wider range of information, insights, and ideas than do individual interviews
--The comments of one person can trigger unexpected reactions from others, leading to snowballing with participants responding to each other's comments
--The responses are generally spontaneous and candid, providing rich insights
--Ideas are more likely to arise out of the blue in a group than in an individual interview and are likely to be unique and potentially creative
Disadvantages of Focus Groups
--The clarity and conviction with which group members often speak leads to a tendency for researchers and managers to regard findings as conclusive rather than as heavily on the sills of the moderator; unfortunately, moderators who possess all of the desirable skills are rare
--Further, the unstructured nature of the responses make coding, analysis, and interpretation difficult
Online Focus Groups
Online focus groups are becoming increasingly popular because of their greater convenience and cost-effectivenesand faster turnaround as compared to traditional focus groups
--Using Internet technologies, marketing research companies have created virtual focus-group facilities consisting of waiting rooms, focus-group rooms, and client rooms
--Respondents are prerecruited, generally from an online list of people who have expressed an interest in participating
--Generally, four to sixe people participate in the online group
--An online focus group has fewer participants than a face-to-face meeting because too many respondents can cause confusion
Advantages of Online Focus Groups
--Geographical constraints are removed, and time constraints are lessened
--They offer the unique opportunity for recontacting group participants at a later date to either revisit issues or to introduce them to modifications in material presented in the original focus group
--The Internet enables the researcher to reach segments that are usually hard to recruit
--People are generally less inhibited in their responses and are more likely to fully express their thoughts online
--A lot of focus groups go well past their alloted time because so many responses are expressed
--Finally, because there is no travel, videotaping, or facilities to arrange, the cost is much lower than for traditional focus groups
Disadvantages of Online Focus Groups
--Only people that have and know how to use a computer can be interviewed online
--Because the name of an individual on the Internet often is private, actuallly verifying that a respondent is a member of a target group is difficult
--Body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice cannot be obtained online
--Another factor that must be considered is the lack of general control over the respondent's envrionment and his or her potential exposure to distracting external stimuli
--Only audio and visual stimuli can be tested. Products can be touched (i.e. clothing) or smelled (i.e. perfume). It is difficult to get the clients as involved in online focus groups as they are in observing traditional focus groups
Depth Interviews
Depth interviews are loosely structured conversations with individuals drawn from the target audience
--Like focus groups, depth interviews are an unstructured and direct way of obtaining information
--Depth interviews are conducted on a one-on-one basis
--These interviews typically last from 30 minutes to more than an hour
--They attempt to uncover underlying motives, prejudices, or attitudes toward sensitive issues
Advantages of Depth Interviews
--Depth interivews can uncover deeper insights about underlying motives than focus groups can
--Depth interviews attribute the responses directly to the respondent, unlike focus groups, where it is often difficult to determine which respondent made a particular response
--Depth interviews result in a free exchange of information that might not be possible in focus groups, where there is sometimes social pressure to conform
Disadvantages of Depth Interviews
--Skilled interviewers capable of conducting depth interviews are expensive and difficult to find
--The lack of structure makes the results susceptible to the interview's influence, and the quality and completeness of the results depend heavily on the interviewer's skills
--The data obtained are difficult to analyze and interpret; the services of skilled psychologists are typically required for this purpose
--The length of the interview combined with high costs means that only a small number of depth interviews can be conducted in a project
Grounded Theory
Grounded thoery uses an inductive and more structured approach in which each subsequent depth interview is adjusted based on the cumulative findings from previous depth interviews with the purpose of developing general concepts or theories
--Sometimes historical records also are analyzed
--This approach is useful in designing new products or modifying existing products and developing advertising and promotion strategies
Projective Theories
Projective techniques are an unstructured and indirect form of questioning that encourages respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings regarding the issues of concern
--They are used in marketing research situations in which the respondent is unable or unwilling to answer a question directly. To get around this problem, the interviewer presents the respondent with a series of vague or incomplete pictures, statements, or scenarios
--The underlying assumption is that when asked to respond to these prompts, the individual will reveal personal information that is perhaps held subconsciously
--Projective techniques used in marketing research can be classified as association, completion, construction, or expressive techniques
2. Indirect Approach
The indirect approach disguises the true purpose of the project
--Projective techniques are the most commonly used indirect approach
Association Techniques
A type of projective technique in which the respondent is presented with a stimulus and asked to respond with the first thing that comes to mind
--Word association is the best known of these techniques, which is where respondents are presented with a list of words, one at time, and asked to respond to each with the first word that comes to mind
--The words of interest, called test words, are interspersed throughout the list, which also contains some neutral, or filler, words to disguise the purpose fo the study
--The subject's response to each word is recorded verbatim and responses are timed. Respondents who hesitate or reason out a response (defined as taking longer than 3 seconds to reply) are identified
Association Techniques Continued
In analyzing the data, the researcher looks at the frequency with which a response is given, the amount of hesitation before responding, and the number of instances when no response is given
--Patterns in responses are analyzed, as are the response times
--It often is possible to classify the associations as favorable, unfavorable, or neutral
--The longer an individual hesitates before answering, the higher the assumed level of involvement wiht the subject
--A nonresponse is thought to indicate the highest level of emotional involvement, because these people are too involved to be able to respond in a short time
Completion Techniques
A projective technique that requires the respondent to complete an incomplete stimulus situation
--They are a natural extension of association techniques, generating in detail about the individual's underlying feelings and beliefs
--The respondents are asked to complete a sentence, a paragraph, or a story
--With sentence completion, respondents are given incomplete sentences and asked to finish them
--Generally, they are asked to use the first word or phrase that comes to mind
Completion Techniques Continued
A variation of sentence completion is paragraph completion, in which the respondent finishes a paragraph that begins with the stimulus phrase
--An expanded version of sentence completion and paragraph completion is story completion
--With story completion, respondents are given part of a story, enough to direct attention to a particular topic, but not enough to hint at the ending
--They are required to give the conclusion in their own words
Construction Techniques
A projective techniue in which the respondent is required to construct a response in the form of a story, dialogue, or description
--These techniques provide even less initial structure than verbally oriented association or completion techniques
--With picture-response techniques, persons or objects are depicted in pictures, and respondents are asked to write a descriptive story, dialogue, or description
--The respondents are analyzed in an attempt to identify themes reflecting the individual's perceptual interpretation of the pictures
Construction Techniques Continued
In cartoon tests, highly stylized stick characters are used to eliminate references to clothing, facial expressions, and even gender
--The respondents are asked to complete the conversation they would attribute to the cartoon characters
--These techniques typically ask for verbal responses from teh cartoon characters and for unspoken thoughts
--Because cartoon tests are simpler to administer and analyze than picture-response techniques, they are the most commonly used construction technique
Expressive Techniques
Projective techniques in which the respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation
--The two main expressive techniques are role playing and the third-person technique
--In role playing, respondents are asked to play the role or assume the behavior of someone else. The researcher assumes that the respondents will project their own feelings into the role
--In the third-person technique, the respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person rather than directly expressing personal beliefs and attitudes. This third person might be a friend, neigbor, a colleague, or a "typical" person
Advantages of Projective Techniques
--They may elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give if they knew the purpose of the study
--This is particularly true when the issues to be addressed are personal, sensitive, or subject to strong social norms
--Projective techniques also are helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and attitudes are operating at a subconscious level
Disadvantages of Projective Techniques
--These techniques generally require personal interviews wiht highly trained interviewers and require skilled interpreters to analyze the responses. Hence, they tend to be expensive
--Furthermore, interpretation bias is a serious risk. With the exception of word association, all techniques are open-ended, making anlaysis and interpretation difficult and subjective
--Some projective techniques, such as role playing, require respondents to engage in unusual behavior
Survey Methods
The survey method of obtaining information is based on questioning respondents
--Surveys are used when the research involves sampling a large number of people and asking them a series of questions
--Surveys can be conducted in person, by telephone, through a mailed questionnaire, or electronically via the computer
--Questions regarding behavior, intentions, attitudes, beliefs, awareness, motivations, and demographic lifestyle characteristics all lend themselves to survey research
Advantages of Survey Methods
--The survey method has the advantage of ease, reliability, and simplicity
--Questionnaires are relatively easy to administer
--Using fixed-response (multiple choice) questions reduces variablity in the results, which can be caused by differences among interviewers, and enhances the reliability of the responses
--It also simplifies coding, analysis, and interpretation of data
Disadvantages of Survery Methods
--The survey method has the disadvantage that respondents might be unable or unwilling to provide the desired information
--The subconscious nature of their motives might make it impossible for them to answer questions accurately
--Respondents might be unwilling to respond if the information requested is sensitive or personal
Structured Data Collection
Structured data collection involving a questionnaire with fixed-response choices can result in loss of validity for certain types of data, such as beliefs and feelings
Survey Methods Classified by Mode of Administration
The various methods of collecting survey data, broadly classified as telephone, personal, mail, or electronic interviews
--Telephone interviewing can be further broken down in terms of whether computers are used in the interview process
--Personal interviews can be conducted in the home, as mall-intercept interviews, or as computer-assisted personal interviews (CAPI)
--The third major method, mail interviewing, takes the form of ordinary mail surveys or surveys conducted using mail panels
--Electronic interviews are generally administered over the Internet or by using e-mail
Classification of Survey Methods
1. Telephone Interviews
---(a). Traditional Telephone
---(b). Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
2. Personal Interviewing
---(a). In-Home
---(b). Mall Intercept
---(c). Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing
3. Mail Interviewing
---(a). Mail/Fax
---(b). Mail Panel
4. Electronic Interviewing
---(a). E-mail
---(b). Internet
Telephone Methods
Telephone interviews vary in terms of the degree of computer assistance supporting the interview
Two Types:
--Traditional Telephone
--Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
Traditional Telephone
Traditional telephone interviews involve phoning a sample of respondents and asking them a series of questions. The interviewer uses a paper questionnaire and records the responses with a pencil
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI)
Computer-assisted telpehone interviewing (CATI) uses a computerized questionnaire administered to respondents over the telephone. The interviewer sits in front of a computer screen and wears a headset. The computer screen replaces a paper and pencil questionnaire, and the headset sustitutes for a telephone
Advantages of Telephone Interviewing
--Interviews can be completed quickly, because the travel time associated with personal interviews is eliminated
--Sample control, or the ability to reach the units specified in the sample, is good when proper sampling and callback procedures are followed
--Control of the field force is good, because the interviewers can be supervised from a central location
--The response rate, the percentage of total attempted interviews that are completed, also is good
--Moreover, telephone surveys are not very expensive
Disadvantages of Telephone Interviewing
--A disadvantage is that the questioning is restricted to the spoken word
--Interviewers cannot use physical stimuli, such as visual illustrations or product demonstrations, and they cannot ask complex questions
--Personal rapport and commitment are difficult to establish due to lack of face-to-face interaction between the interviewer and the respondent
--Respondents can easily escape the interview process, either by cutting the interview short or simply hanging up the phone
Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Telephone Interviewing
--Advantages: fast, good sample control, good control of field force, good response rate, moderate cost
--Disadvantages: no use of physical stimuli, limited to simple questions, low quantity of data
Personal Methods
Personal interviewing methods can be categorized as in-home, mall-intercept, or computer-assisted interviews
Personal In-Home Interviews
In personal in-home interviews, respondents are interviewed face-to-face in their homes
--The interviewer's task is to contact the respondents, ask the questions, and record the responses
Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Personal-In Home Interviews
--Advantages: complex questions can be asked, good for physical stimuli, very good sample control, high quantity of data, very good response rate, longer interviews can be done
--Disadvantages: low control of field force, high social desirability, potential for interview bias, most expensive, some samples may be difficult to access, may take long to collect the data
Mall-Intercept Personal Interviews
In mall-intercept personal interviews, respondents are approached and interviewed in shopping malls
--The process involves stopping the shoppers, screening them for appropriateness, and either administering the survey on the spot or inviting them to a research facility located in the mall to complete the interview
Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Mall-Intercept Personal Interviews
--Advantages: complex questions can be asked, very good for physical stimuli, very good control of environment, very good response rate
--Disadvantages: high social desirability, potential for interviewer bias, moderate quantity of data, high cost
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI)
In computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI), the third form of personal interviewing, the respondent sits in front of a computer terminal and answers a questionnaire on the screen by using the keyboard or a mouse
--Several user-friendly electronic packages can aid in designing easy and understandable questions.
--Help screens and courteous error messages also are provided
--The colorful screens and on-and off-screen stimuli add to the respondent's interest and involvement in the task
--This method has been classified as a personal-interview technique, because an interviewer is usually presetnt to serve as a host and to guide the respondent as needed
Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI)
--Advantages: complex questions can be asked, very good for physical stimuli, very good control of environment, very good response rate, low potential for interviewer bias
--Disadvantages: high social desirability, moderate quantity of data, high cost
Mail Methods
Mail interviews, the third major form of survey administration, can be conducted with independently compiled mailing lists or by using a mail panel
Mail Interviews
The traditional mail interview is a "cold" mail survey that is sent to individuals who meet a specified demographic profile but who have not been precontacted to participate in the survey
--A typical mail interview package consists of the outgoing envelope, cover letter, questionnaire, postage-paid return envelope, and possibly an incentive
--Those individuals motivated to do so complete and return the questionnaire through the mail.
--There is no verbal interaction between the researcher and the respondent
Fax Survey
In a fax survey, the questionnaire is transmitted by a fax machine to respondents
--The respondents can then return the completed questionnaire by faxing it to a designated (toll-free) number or, sometimes, by mail
--Fax surveys share many characteristics with mail surveys; however, they can provide faster, and often higher, response rates
Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Mail Interviews
--Advantages: no field-force problems, no interviewer bias, moderate/high quantity of data, low social desirability, low cost
--Disadvantages: limited to simple questions, low sample control for cold mail, no control of environment, low response rate for cold mail, low speed
Mail Panels
A mail panel consists of a large and nationally representative sample of individuals who have agreed to participate in periodic survey research
--Incentives in the form of cash or gifts are often offered to teh individuals who agree to participate
--Once the individuals have been admitted to the panel, detailed demographic and lifestyle data are collected on each household
--The researcher uses this information to select targeted mailing lists within the panel based on client needs
Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Mail Panels
--Advantages: no field-force problems, no interviewer bias, high quantity of data, low social desirability, low/moderate cost, good sample control
--Disadvantages: limited to simple questions, no control of environment, low/moderate speed
Electronic Methods
Electronic surveys can be conducted via electronic mail (e-mail), if the respondents' addresses are known, or by posting the survey to a Web site
E-mail Surveys
E-mail surveys are questionnaires distributed through electronic mail
--If the addresses are known, the survey can simply be mailed electronically to respondents included in the sample
Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of E-mail Surveys
--Advantages: no interviewer bias, low cost, low social desirability, high speed, contact hard-to-reach respondents
--Disadvantages: low sample control, no control of environment, low response rate, moderate quantity of data, security concerns
Internet Surveys
An Internet survey is a questionnaire posted on a Web site that is self-administered by the respondent
--The questions are displayed on the screen, and the respondents provide answers by clicking an icon, keying an answer, or highlighting a phrase
Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Internet Surveys
--Advantages: no interviewer bias, low cost, low social desirability, very high speed, visual appeal and interactivity, personalized, flexible questioning, contact hard-to-reach respondents
--Disadvantages: low sample control, no control of environment, low response rate, moderate quantity of data
Criteria for Selecting a Survey Method
1. If complex and diverse questions have to be asked, one of the personal methods (in-home, mall intercept, or CAPI) is preferable. Internet surveys are an option as well, but the other self-administered methods (mail, mail panels, and e-mail) might not be appropriate because it is not possible to clarify respondent questions in an interactive manner. Telephone surveys are limited, because the respondent cannot see the questionnaire and the interviewer-respondent contact is not face-to-face
2. From the perspective of the use of physical stimuli, personal methods (in-home, mall-intercept, or CAPI) are preferable
Criteria for Selecting a Survey Method Continued
3. If sample control is an issue, cold mail (but not mail panel), fax, and electronic methods might not be appropriate
4. Control of the data collection envrionmnet favors the use of central location (mall intercept and CAPI) interviewing
5. High quantity of data favors the use of in-home and mail panels and makes the use of telephone interviewing inappropriate
6. Low response rates make the use of cold mail and electronic methods disadvantageous
Criteria for Selecting a Survey Method Continued
7. If social desirability is an issue, mail, mail panel, fax, an dInternet survey s are best
8. If interviewer bias is an issue, the use of mail (cold and panels), fax, and electronic interviewing (e-mail and Internet) is favored
9. Speed favors Internet, e-mail, telephone, and fax methods
10. Costs favor cold mail, fax, electronic (e-mail and Internet), mail panels, telephone, mall-intercept, CAPI, and in-home methods in that order (most favorable to least favorable)
Improving Survey Response Rates
Regardless of the method chosen, researchers should attempt to improve response rates. This can be done trhough prior notification, incentives, follow-up, and other methods
Prior Notification
Prior notification consists of sending a letter or e-mail or making a telephone call to potential respondents, notifying them of the imminent mail, telephone, personal, or electronic survey
--Prior notification increases response rates for samples of the general public because it reduces surprise and uncertainty and creates a more cooperative atmosphere
Incentives
Offering monetary as well as nonmonetary incentives to potential respondents can increase response rates
--Monetary incentives can be prepaid or promised
--A prepaid incentive is included wiht the survey or questionnaire
--A promised incentive is sent to only those respondents who complete the survey by the specified deadline
--The most commonly used nonmonetary incentives are premiums and rewards, such as pens, pencils, books, and offers of survey results
Follow-Up
Follow-up, or contacting nonrespondents periodically after the initial contact, is particularly effective in decreasing refusals in mail surveys
--The researcher might send a postcard or letter to remind nonrespondents to complete and return the questionnaire
--Two or three mailings might be needed in addition to the original one
--With proper follow-up, the response rate in mail surveys can be researched to 80 percent or more
--Follow-up can also be done by telephone, e-mail, or personal contact
Other Facilitators of Response
Pesonalization, or sending letters addressed to specific individuals, is effective in increasing response rates
Observation Methods
Observation methods are the second type of methodology used in descriptive research
--Observation involves recording the behavioral patterns of people as well as data on objects and events in a systematic manner to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest
--The observer does not question or communicate with the people being observed
--Information can be recorded as the events occur or from records of past events
--The major observation methods are personal observation and mechanical observation
Personal Observation
In personal observation, a trained observer collects the data by recording behavior exactly as it occurs
--The observer does not attempt to control or manipulate the phenomenon being observed, but simply records what takes place
Humanistic Inquiry
Humanistic inquiry is a special form of personal observation in which the researcher is immersed in the system under study
Advantages of Personal Observation
--The main advantage of personal observation is that it is a highly flexible method, because the observer can record a wide variety of phenomena
--It also is highly suitable for use in natural settings
Disadvantages of Personal Observation
--The main disadvantage is that the method is unstructured in that an observation form is generally not used for recording the behavior as it occurs
--Rather, the observer records the phenomena after completing the observation in a free, unstructured format. This leads to high observation bias
--Also, the data and their interpretation are highly subjective, leading to high analysis bias
Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Personal Observation
--Advantages: most flexible, highly suitable in natural settings
--Disadvantages: high observation bias, high analysis bias
Mechanical Observation
Mechanical observation, as one would expect, involves the use of a mechanical device to record behavior
--These devices might or might not require respondents' direct participation
--Such devices are particularly useful for recording continuous behavior, such as traffic flow in a grocery story
--Respondents do not need to change their behavior in any way to be involved in this type of observational study
--The peoplemeter is attached to a television and continaully records not only the channels the television is tuned to, but also who is watching
Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechanical Observation
--The main advantage of mechanical observation is low observation bias, because the behavior is recorded mechanically and not by an observer. Likewise, the data are analyzed according to prespecified norms and guidelines, resulting in low analysis bias
--The main disadvantages are that some of these methods can be intrusive or expensive and might not be suitable in natural settings, such as the marketplace
Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechanical Observation
--Advantages: low observation bias, low-to-medium analysis bias
--Disadvantages: can be intrusive, not always suitable in natural settings
Ethnographic Research
Ethnographic research is the study of human behavior in its natural context and involves observation of behavior and setting along with depth interviews
--Sometimes, audio and visual recordings also are obtained
--Thus, both the questioning and observation methods are combined to understand the behavior of consumers
Causality
When the occurrence of X increases the probability of the occurrence of Y
--The scientific meaning of causality is more appropriate to marketing research because it is sensitive to the limitations that surround the data collection process adn the causal inferences that can legitimately be drawn.
3 Conditions for Causality
1. Concomitant variation
2. Time order of occurence of variables
3. Absence of other possible causal factors
**These conditions are necessary but not sufficient ot demonstrate causality; that is, they must be satisfied to justify drawing a causal inference
1. Concomitant Variation
Concomitant variation occurs when the presumed cause (x) and presumed effect (y) are both present and both vary in a manner predicted by the hypothesis
2. Time Order of Occurrence of Variables
Another requirement in determining a causal relationship relates to when the variables occur; that is, the occurence in time of the presumed cause relative to the presumed effect
--For one variable to hypothetically cause another, it must precede or occur simultaneously with the effect; it cannot occur afterwards
3. Absence of Other Possible Causal Factors
The presence of additional or extraneous variables that impact the effect (i.e. dependent) variable must be controlled in order to draw causal inferences
--Ruling out other possible causal factors is seldom an easy task
Experimentation
Experimentation is the research technique used in causal research for establishing cause-and-effect relationships in marketing
--Experiments can be described in terms of independent, dependent and extraneous variables; test units; and random assignment to experimental and control groups
--To conduct an experiment, the researcher manipulates and controls one or mroe independent variables and then observes the effects that those manipulated variables have on the dependent variables, while controlling the influence of outside or extraneous variables
Experimentation as Conclusive Research
1. Descriptive Research
2. Causal Research
---Experimentation
------(a). Field Experiments
------(b). Laboratory Experiments
Independent Variables
Variables that are manipulated by the researcher and whose effects are measured and compared
--These variables, also known as treatments, might include price levels, package designs, and advertising themes
Test Units
Individuals, organizations, or other entities whose response to independent variables or treatments is being studied
--These test units might include consumers, stores, or geographic areas
Dependent Variables
Variables that measure the effect of the independent variables on the test units
--These variables might include sales, profits, and market shares
Extraneous Variables
Variables, other than the independent variables, that influence the response of the test units
--These variables can confound the dependent variable measures in a way that weakens or invalidates the results of the experiment
--Extraneous variables include store size, store location, and competitive effort
Random Assignment
Involves randomly assigning test units to the experimental and control groups
--Random assignment to experimental control groups attempts to minimized the influence of extraneous factors such as age, income, or brand preference by spreading them equally across the groups under study
Experimental Group
The group exposed to the manipulated independent variable
--The results of the experimental group might be compared to another experimental group at a different level of manipulation or to a control group
Control Group
The control group is not exposed to the independent variable manipulation. It provides a point of comparison when examining the effects of these manipulatings on the dependent variable
Experimental Design
The set of experimental procedures specifying:
1. The test units and sampling procedures
2. Independent variables
3. Dependent variables
4. How to control the extraneous variables
Definition of Symbols
X= the exposure of a group to an independent variable, treatment or event, the effects of which are to be determined
O= the process of observation or measurement of the dependent variable on teh test units or group of units
R= the random assignment of test units or groups to separate treatments
Meaning of: X O1 O2
Means a given group of test units was exposed to the treatment variable (X), and the response was measured at two different points in time (O1) and (O2)
Meaning of: R X1 O1
R X2 O2
Means that two groups of test units were randomly assigned (R) to two different treatment groups at the same time (X1 and X2), and the dependent variable was measured in the two groups simultaneously (O1 and O2)
Validity in Experimentation
In conducting an experiment, a researcher has two goals.
--The first is to draw valid conclusions about the effect of the independent variables on the dependent variables. This is referred to as internal validity
--The second goal is to make valid generalizations from the specific experimental environment to a larger population. This goal is satisfied when external validity is achieved
Internal Validity
Internal validity refers to whether the manipulation of the independent variables or treatments actually caused the observed effects on the dependent variables
--Internal validity is threatened when the influences of extraneous variables are mixed with the independent variables
--Without proper control of the extraneous variables, the researcher is unable to isolate the effect of the independent variable and thus cannot establish internal validity
External Validity
External validity refers to whether the cause-and-effect relationships found in the experiment remain the same when replicated in a larger population
--In other words, can the results be generalized beyond the experimental situation? If so, to what populations, settings, times, independent variables, and dependent variables can the results be projected?
External Validity Continued
Threats to external validity arise when the experiment is condcted in an unrealistic manner, limiting the ability to generalize
--This occurs when the experimental conditions do not account for facotrs likely to be encountered in the real world
--Experiments conducted in a laboratory environment are more likely to lack external validity than field experiments
--This is because laboratory experiments are conducted in artificial, highly controlled environments
Extraneous Variables
Extraneous variables are classified into the following categories: history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, statistical regression, selection bias, and mortality
History
Specific events that are external to the experiment but that occur at the same time as the experiment
--Ex. general economic conditions might decline during the experiment, thereby contaminating the posttreatment observation. The longer the time interval between observations, the greater the possibility that history will confound an experiment
Maturation
An extraneous variable attributable to changes in test units themselves that occur with the passage of time
--Ex. In an experiment involving people, maturation takes place as people become older, more experienced, tired, bored, or uninterested.
--Tracking and marketing studies that span several months are vulnerable to maturation, because it is difficult to know how respondents are changing over time
Testing Effects
Testing effects are caused by the experimentation process
--Typically, these are the effects of taking a measure of the dependent variable before and after the presentation of the treatment
--Ex. the respondents try to maintain consistency between their pre- and posttreatment attitudes. As a result of the testing effect, posttreatment attitudes might be influenced more by pretreatment attitudes than be the treatment itself
Instumentation
An extraneous variable involving changes in the measuring instrument or in the observers or scores themselves
--Ex. consider an experiment in which dollar sales are being measured before and after exposure to an in-store display (treatment). If there is a nonexperimental price change between measurements, this results in a change in instrumentation, because dolar sales will be measured using different unit prices
Statistical Regression
An extraneous variable that occurs when test units with extreme scores move closer to the average score during the course of the experiment
--Ex. suppose that some respondents have either a very favorable or very unfavorable attituted. On posttreatment measurement, their attitudes might have moved toward the average.
--This has a confounding affect on the experimental results because the observed effect might be attributable to statistical regression rather than to the treatment
Selection Bias
An extraneous variable attributable to the improper assignment of test units to treatment conditions
--Ex. consider an experiment in which two different merchandising displays (old and new) are assigned to different department stores. The stores in the two groups might not be equivalent to begin with; they might vary with respect to a key characteristic, such as store size
Mortality
An extraneous variable attributable to the loss of test units while the experiment is in progress
--Ex. suppose that during the course of the merchandising experiment, three stores int eh new display treatment condition drop out. The researcher could not determine whether the average sales for the new display stores would have been higher or lower if these three stores had continued in the experiment
Controlling Extraneous Variables
Extraneous variables represent alternative explanations of experimental results
--They pose a serious threat to the internal and external validity of an experiment
--Unless they are controlled, they affect the dependent variable and thus confound the results. For this reason, they are also called confounding variables
--Extraneous variables can be controlled in four ways: randomization, matching, statistical control, and design control
Randomization
A method of controlling extraneous variables that involves randomly assigning test units to experimental and control groups by using random numbers. Treatment conditions also are randomly assigned to experimental groups
Matching
A method of controlling extraneous variables that involves matching test units on a set of key background variables before assigning them to the treatment conditions
Statistical Control
A method of controlling extraneous variables by measuring the extraneous variables and adjusting for their effects through statistical methods
Design Control
A method of controlling extraneous variables that involves using specific experimental designs
Classification of Experimental Design
1. Pre-experimental
---(a). One-shot case study
---(b). One-group pretest-protest
---(c). Static group
2. True Experimental
---(a). Pretest-posttest control group
---(b). Posttest-only control group
3. Quasi-experimental
---(a). Time series
---(b). Multiple time series
4. Statistical
---Factorial Design
1. Pre-Experimental Designs
Designs that do not control for extraneous factors by randomization
--They suffer from many threats to internal and external validty
--However, they can add value when used in an exploratory fashion
--Three examples of this design are the one-shot case study, the one-group pretest-posttest design, and the static group
One-Shot Case Study
Can be represented symbolically as: X O1
--A single group of test units is exposed to a treatment X, and then a single measurement on the dependent variable is taken (O1)
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
Can be symbolized as: O1 X O2
--A group of test units is measured once before the experimental treatment (O1) and once after (O2)
Static Group Design
Can be expressed symbolically as: EG: X O1
CG: O2
--A two-group experimental design in which one of the groups acts as a control group (CG). Only one group, the experimental group (EG), receives the experimental treatment. The subjects are not assigned randomly, and measurements are made on both groups following the treatment (posttest)
2. True Experimental Designs
Experimental designs distinguished by the fact that hte researcher can randomly assign test units to experimental and control groups and also randomly assign treatments to experimental groups
--These designs provide a larger degree of control over extraneous variables
--Included in this category are the pretest-posttest control group design and the post-test-only group
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
Can be symbolized as:
EG: R O1 X O2
CG: R O3 O3
--Subjects are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control group. A pretreatment measure is taken on each group. Thus, each group is measured prior to administering the treatment to the experimental group
Posttest-Only Control Group Design
Can be symbolized as:
EG: R X O1
CG: R O2
--The experimental group is exposed to the treatment but the control group is not and no pretest measure is taken. Test units are randomly assigned
3. Quasi-Experimental Designs
Designs that apply part of the procedures of true experimentation, while lacking full experimental control
--These designs are typically employed in natural environments, enabling some degree of experimental control in a natural setting
--Two such designs are time series and multiple series designs
Time Series Design
Can be symbolized as:
O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8 O9 O10
--Involves the use of periodic measurements of a group or individuals. At some point during the measurement, an experimental manipulation occurs naturally or is artificially introduced. Additional measurement follows
Multiple Time Series Design
Similar to time series except that it adds a control group that also is repeatedly measured. This group is not subject to the experimental treatment.
--If the control group is carefully selected, this design can be an improvement over the simple time series experiment
4. Statistical Designs
Designs that allow for the statistical control and analysis of external variables
--Statistical designs are classified on their characteristics and use
--Statistical designs include factorial designs
Factorial Design
Used to measure the effects of two or more independent variables at various levels and to allow for interactions between variables
Laboratory Experiment
An artificial setting for experimental in which the researcher constructs the desired conditions
--Laboratory environments can cause demand artifacts, a phenomenon in which the respondents attempt to guess the purpose of the experiment, modifying their responses accordingly
--On the positive side, laboratory environments do allow for more complex designs than field experiments. Hence, the researcher can control for more factors or variables in the laboratory setting, which increases internal validity
Field Environment
A field experiment involves measurement of behavior, attitudes, or perceptions in the environment in which they occur
--The researcher has much less control over extraneous variables that might impact internal validity
--However, if internal validity can be maintained, the results can be generalized more easily than those obtained in a laboratory setting
Limitations of Experimentation
Although experimentation is becoming increasingly important in marketing research, it does have limitations: time, cost, and administration of an experiment
Time
Many types of field experiments become increasingly accurate with time.
--For example, to observe the long-term effect of a promotional campaign or a product introduction, puchase behavior must be observed over multiple purchase cycles
--The accuracy of such behavioral information tends to increase with the passage otime
--This added precision msut be weighted against the costs of delaying a product rollout or the launch of a new advertising campaign
Cost
New-product research in field environments can be extermely expensive
--It is much more expensive than laboratory experiments, which typically occur on a small scale and use a limited number of subjects
--Test markets can easily cost millions of dollars
Administration
Controlling the effects of extraneous variables is an essential aspect of experimental research
--Achieving the desired level of control becomes increasingly difficult ast the research moves from teh laboratory to the field
--Field experiments often interfere with a company's ongoing operations, and obtaining cooperation from teh retailers, wholesalers, and other involved can be difficult
--Also, competitors might deliberately contaminate the results of a field experiment
Test Marketing
An application of a controlled experiment done in limited, but carefully selected, test markets. It involves replicating the planned national marketing program for a product in teh test markets
--The two major objectives of test marketing are:
1. To determine market acceptance of the product
2. To test alternative levels of marketing mix variables