Marine Biology Exam Iii

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Coral Reef Characteristics

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-like shallow water
-very productive ecosystems
-600 mi^2 of earth's surface
-contain 4-5% of all species
-1/2 of Ca runoff taken up by coral reefs
-Nigerian of class anthrozoa --> secrete calcium carbonate (need zooanthellae --> symbiotic algal cells)

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Limiting Factors in Tropical Communities

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-sunlight for dinoflagellates limites depth (~50-70 m)
-temperature above 23-25 degrees C
-low sedimentation
-need salinity (32-35 psu)

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Polyps

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colonies of animals with individual polyps

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Sclerosepta

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provide structural integrity, protection, and an increased surface area for the polyp’s soft tissues, extend upward from the basal plate and radiate outward from its center

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Budding & Fragmentation

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asexual reproduction

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Atoll

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-oldest forms of reefs
-reminant of volcanic areas
-Indo-Pacific Ocean
-encircles a lagoon

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Barrier Reef

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-a reef separated from a mainland or island shore by a deep lagoon
-mostly in Indo-Pacific region

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Fringing Reef

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-a reef that is directly attached to a shore or borders it with an intervening shallow channel or lagoon
-most common reef type
-found in tropical areas

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Coral Reef Organisms

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-Tridacna
-Soft Coral
-Sponges --> encrusted; some dangerous & have bright warning colors
-Star Fish
-Fire Coral
-Algal Ridge --> forms on part that touches air --> mostly red algae

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Atlantic Coral Reef

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-Mostly young
-usually less than 10,000 years old

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Indo-Pacific Reefs

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-old reefs (~60 million years old)
-Pocillophora, Pavona, Goniopora --> genera found in Indo-Pacific but not in the Atlantic

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Differences Between Atlantic & Indo-Pacific Reefs

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-Mollusk/Bivalve species --> 1,200 Atl; 5,000 Indo-Pac
-Reef Fish species --> 600 Atl; 2,000 Indo-Pac
-Seafans --> High Number in Atl; almost non Indo-Pac
-Algal Ridges --> Not in Atl
-Giant Clams --> Not in Atl
-Soft Corals --> none in Atl; Numerous in Indo-Pac
-Clown Fish --> Not in Atl
-Coral Activity --> Night in Atl; Day in Indo-Pac
-Major Grazers --> starfish in Atl; fish in Indo-Pac
-Attols --> Not in Atl

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Attol

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-High Productivity (1,500 - 5,000 g C/m^2/yr)

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Coral Reef Competition

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-extend digestive filaments
-secrete mucous --> can be toxic to surrounding coral or predators

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Coral Reef Predation

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-Crown of Thornes
-Fish --> puffers, butterfly fish, trigger fish, surgeon fish, parrot fish (all grazers of coral)
-separate fish at day & night --> usually different feeding & active times
-usually stay in one location; not big on travelling

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Mangrove Forest Characteristics

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-a lot of smaller fish & invertebrates
-bivalves & worms
-lots of mud
-parrot fish

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Red Mangroves

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-Rhizophora
-out in true salt water
-in sand
-block out slat from cytoplasm
-reproduce by dropping seedlings in water

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Black Mangroves

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-not in open water
-in more muddy & still water
-have pneumatophores to get oxygen to roots in anoxic mud
-salt glands on underside of leaves

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Equinox

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spring tide rises extraordinarily high

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Tarpon Breathe?

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gulp air in mangroves

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Meiofauna

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-microorganisms that live in the benthic regions of ocean
-rocks, sands, sediment, etc.)

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Interstitial Space

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space in between sedimentary particles (grains of sand, etc.)

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Endobenthic

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organisms move within sediment by displacing particles

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Mesobenthic

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organisms move & live within interstitial space

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Interstitial Fauna Meiofauna

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-Grain/Sediment Size
--> smaller grains = less O2, smaller ogranisms
--> larger grains = more O2, more water movement
-Temperature --> further down in sediment = more stable temp
-Salinity
-Wave Action --> meiofauna are easy prey in open water

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Meiofauna Taxa

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-Ciliate Protozoans --> slender; wormlike
-Turbelliam Flatworms
-Annelids --> polychaetes & oligiochaetes
-Nematodes --> abundant & diverse
-Gastrorichs --> numerous in marine sediment
-Tardigrades (water bears) --> extreme survivors (drying, temp, etc.)
-Kinorhyncha
-Crustceans --> copepods
-Ostracods

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Meiofauna Adaptions

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-Size --> small to fit in sediment (smaller are more represented)
-Body Shape/Form --> flattened; vermiform (elongated); streamlike
-Adhesive Organs --> keep organism adhered to sediment
-Claws/Hooks --> crustaceans & tardigrades
-Statocyst --> gravity detection system for location in sediment

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Temporary (Meiofauna)

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-often juveniles of macrofauna

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Permanent (Meiofauna)

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-low egg production --> because they are small
-live entire life in sediment

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Reproductive Adaptations (Meiofauna)

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-Direct Fertilization --> some copepods
-Spermatophores --> some polychaetes; mollusks
-Hermaphrodism --> gastrorichs, some hydroids/polychaetes
-Brood Protection

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Ecology (Meiofauna)

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-1,000,000 meiofaunal organisms in 1 square meter
-copepods & nematodes most abundant
-total abundance/biomass highest in intertidal & decreases as depth increases
-Seasonal Variance

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Vertical Zonation (Meiofauna)

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-95% organisms found in upper 7cm
-Affected by oxygen, predation, salinity, & temperature
-Thiobias --> anoxic layer (ciliates)

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Vertical Migration (Meiofauna)

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-triggered by changes in predation, oxygen, salinity, & temperature

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Herbivores (Meiofauna)

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-copepods
-ostracods

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Predators (Meiofauna)

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-some nematodes
-turbellarians
-tardigrades
-hydroids

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Detrivores (Meiofauna)

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-gastorichs
-nematodes
-ploychaetes

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Predator/Prey Interaction (Meiofauna)

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-Bubbler Crabs --> filter through sediment (sand) to eat meiofauna
-Wadding Birds --> often feed on meiofauna at low tide
-Gobies, grunts, sockeye salmon, & other benthic feeding fishes
-grass shrimp

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Sampling Meiofauna

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-Coring --> tube through sediment; able to see stratification
-Osmotic Shock --> put sample in fresh water, or do something to get organisms to move/migrate
-62 micron sieve
-Elutriation --> pour sample in funnel & small organisms float to top & get sucked up

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Species Richness & Distribution (Meiofauna)

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-as many as 70 species live in 50 cm^2
-distributed worldwide
-no gradient in species abundance & diversity from equator to poles (equal)

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Symbiosis

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close relationship/interaction between different species

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Commensalism

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-commensal & host
-one benefits & other is not harmed

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Inquilinism

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sharing a home or internal part of body

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Mutualism

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-both species benefit
-ex. cleaner shrimp --> shrimp get food & fish/eel gets cleaned

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Symbiosis vs. Parasitism

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-one species lives in or on another
-parasite gains nourishment/protection
-harmful to host (ex. lamprey)

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Algae & Animals

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-Autotrophic unicellular algae/chloroplasts & marine invertebrates
-occur in photic zones, primarily subtidal & intertidal
-Tropical>Temperate>Polar

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Zooxanthellae

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-Common Algae
-Brown algae (dinoflagellates)
-Associated w/ protista, sponges, jellyfish

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Zoochlorellae

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-Green Algae
-Associated with cnidaria, & protista

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Cyanellae

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-blue green algae/cyanobacteria
-Associated with porifera & protista

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Origin

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-ingestion of algal cells/chloroplast by host
-Cryptic Symbiosis --> algae lost cellular integrity --> appears as part of host

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Cryptic Symbiosis

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-algae lost cellular integrity
-appears as part of host
-EXAMPLES
-Protista
-Porifera (sponges)
-Cnidarians (jellyfish)
-Ascidians (sea squirts)
-Antozoa (Coral)
-Tridacna Clams
-Gastropods
-Flatworms

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Animal Symbiosis

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-Commensalism (Epizoites/Endozoites)
-EXAMPLES
-Eurchin has shrimp living on spiines for protection; also some fish live in spines
-Crab attaches anemones to claws to gather food particles (takes some & leaves some for anemones)
-Wrasse (cleaner fish)
-Hermit Crab attaches anemone to shell & uses it as protection
-Clown Fish live in anemones --> develop mucous as the grow to tolerate sting of anemones & use it for defense
-Lybia Tesselata & anemones (crab with anemones)
-Portuguese Man-of-War --> has symbiotic relationship with organisms in tenticles

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Commensalism

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-Epizoites --> live on host
-Endozoites --> live inside host

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Bioluminescence

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-Symbiosis between squid, fish, tunicates, & luminescent bacteria
-Bacteria obtain nutrients from host
-Host uses light for mating, defense, & attraction of prey

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Seasonal Seas

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-Most productive seas on Earth
-Border temperate climates zones
-Shrimp swarms in Alaska --> feast for incoming Salmon --> eaten by Salmon Sharks
-Killer Whales --> hunt N. Atlantic herring using echo location --> use water pressure waves from tail to stun fish
-Diving Birds --> force herring into defensive ball near surface --> allows for easy predation by birds & yellow tail rock fish

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Exxon Valdez

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-large oil spill in Prince William Sound

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Human Factors Affecting Oceans

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-Commercial Fishing
-Global Warming
-Chemical Pollution
-Fish Farming

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Marine Fisheries

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-source of protein for humans (85 million metric tons of 10% of protein consumed)
-Continental Shelf
--> highest primary productivty
--> most accessible
--> easiest to fish
--> 7% of total ocean, but 90% of fishing done there

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Commercial Species

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-Herring, Sardines, Anchovies
-Cod, Pollock, Haddock
-Mackerel
-Tuna
-Shrimp
-Squid
-Clams, Oysters, Mussels
-Salmon
-Flatfish
-Whales

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Sustainable Yield

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-How much we can take without depleting the species
-Max = 60-100 million tons
-Based on primary productivity, breeding stock, & predator consumption
-Most fisheries are at max or overfished

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Overharvesting

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-Production has declined in 13 of 15 major marine fishing areas
-Catch declined 12-64% in some areas
-Catch worth $70 billion, but costs $124 billion to complete (government funded)
-Has lowered max sustainable yield for many species

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Ecosystem Overfishing

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-Harvest mortality
-Physical impact of fishing gear --> impacts on environment, predation, and competition
-Bycatch

--> all leads to decline in mean trophic level

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Ecosystem (Fishing)

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-skews community composition
-often removes tip predator
-loss of species richness (ex coral reef)
-bycatch
-ghost fishing

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Bycatch

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-non-target organisms inadvertently caught & killed
-shrimp fishing --> nearly 80% is bycatch

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Ghost Fishing

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-lost net or gear continues to catch & kill fish

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Pollack, Haddock, & Cod fishing

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-catch & process fish on large ships
-Cod fisheries in Atlantic decimated by 1970's from overfishing
-Large % of pollack & haddock fishing done on huge factory ships
-ships can take up to 100 tons of fish in one net full

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Squid Fishing

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-catch squid on jig lines & reel them in
-usually done automatically throughout night

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Salmon

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-primarily Pacific Salmon fished
-Highly regulated in US --> fishing ok in Alaska due to strict regulations
-Can be sustainable if controlled
-Fueled by high sales price --> being hurt by fish farming

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Whaling

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-1.3 million whales taken in 60 years of Antarctic whaling
-Many whale species are endangered due to overharvesting

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Whaling Regulations

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-Jurisdiction extends 200 miles for coastal nations
-International Treaties & Commissions --> some successful, but many fail (ex. International Whaling Commission)

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New Fisheries

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-Krill --> great & sustainable source of protein for humans
-Blue Whiting --> continental slopes
-Antarctic Squid
-Indian Ocean Fisheries

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Mariculture

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-Aquatic Farming/Farming of Marine Organisms
-Salmon, mullet, yellow tail, flatfish
-Shrimp/prawns
-Mollusks/oysters/mussels (farmed on artificial frames)
-Fish farmed in pens
-Marine plant & algae fields

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Risks of Mariculture

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-waste produced by fish
-fish escape & compete/transmit diseases in communities that they don't belong in
-High degree of diseased fish in confined pens
-genetically modified
-predator control around pens --> shoot & kill predators
-use drugs, growth hormones, & herbicides which affect surrounding environment

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Pollution (Oil)

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-tanker accident & drilling rigs --> Exxon Valdez (260,000 barrels of crude oil spilled)
-oil kills birds, marine mammals, intertidal zone organisms, & fish
-Data suggests ecosystem recovers much slower than expected

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Sewage & Garbage

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-LA discharges 330 million gallons of sewage a day
-Garbage islands collect due to currents
-Sewage highly alters community structure
-Oahu, HI

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Chemical/Radioactive Waste

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-PCB's, Mercury, DDT, Industrial Waste Products
-Biological Magnification --> chemical concentration increases in animal tissue as trophic level increases
-Nuclear Weapons --> fallout
-Nuclear Power Plants --> waste dumping & accidental release

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Thermal Pollution

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-Plants discharge hot water used to cool plants back into ecosystem
-affects species
-limits diversity
-promotes algae growth
-disturbs community composition

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Eutrophication

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-release of excess nutrients into coastal waters
-creates "dead zones" --> anoxic areas, seasonal
-Approx. 400 dead zones worldwide (ex. Gulf of Mexico at mouth of Mississippi River)

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Invasive/Introduced Species

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-oysters
-striped bass
-invertebrates
-algae
-ship ballasts --> carry non-native species/organisms
-invasive species --> outcompete native species
-alters community & ecosystem

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Global Climate Change

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-Ice Cap Melting --> could raise oceans 5-10 feet
-Warming Water Temperatures --> klll coral reefs & limit species richness

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The Coast Video

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-must be able to survive extreme change
-Marine Iguanas of Galapagos --> only sea going creatures (use claws to grip rocks)
-Crab Island - Australia & Ascension Island - Atlantic --> traditional sea turtle breeding grounds
-Newfoundland --> Capin swim onto beach to lay eggs
-Sea Lions --> hunt penguins
-Humpback whales --> feed on plankton near Alaska
-Walrus --> skin turns from white to pink on land because blood vessels dialte
-Killer Whales --> eat sea lion pups near shore