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74 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Leadership |
(p. 287) All definitions have three key elements: (1) It is a behavioral Process (2) It is interpersonal in nature (3) It is aimed at influencing and motivating members toward group or organizational goals. |
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Three key research areas of leadership theories |
(p. 287) Trait Approach, Behavioral Approach, Situational Approach |
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Trait Approach to Leadership Theories |
(p. 288) Early researchers tried to find a finite set of characteristics to identify good leaders. They included physical, mental, and social traits. However, this research was unsuccessful. |
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Behavioral Approach to Leadership Theories |
(p. 288-292) Researchers examine leaders actions to identify those behaviors that make good leaders. Two key studies: (1) Ohio State Studies - Eventually narrowed down results to two key categories: consideration (concern for members) and initiating structure (clarifying roles of leaders and members). (2) Michigan Studies - Mimics the Ohio State study and identifies two leadership styles: employee centered and production centered. |
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Situational Approach to Leadership Theories |
(p. 292-3) Theories take into account differences in contexts and situations to detirmine what traits and behaviors are appropriate and indicative of good leadership Theories include: Contigency Model, McClelland theory of Managerial Motivation, Path-Goal theory, Adaptive-reactive theory |
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Contigency Model of Effective Leadership |
(p. 293-297) Effectiveness is based on the fit between a leader's style (task-oriented to employee oriented) and the favorability of their situation towards that style |
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Situational Favorableness |
(p. 294) reflects the degree tow which the situation permits of facilitates the exercise of influence by the leader. Three key elements detirmining favorablness include: leader-member relations, task-structure, and position power |
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McClelland's Model of Managerial Motivation |
(pg. 298-300) The human need for affiliation, achievement, and power affect leader effectiveness. The need for affiliation is least important, but can also be detrimental to good leadership. The need for achievement can be beneficial in small settings, but detrimental in large ones. Power is the most influential need and can be beneficial or detrimental depending on the situation. |
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Path-Goal Theory |
(p. 301-306) Effective leaders incentivize specific activities and tasks by linking employees personal goals to those of the organization. Also help ensure that employees are equipped to succeed with few barriers |
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Adaptive-Reactive Theory |
(p. 306-308) Large organizations have two categories of variables affecting leaders and members: Macro (size, technology, structure) and Micro (tasks, individual members). These two categories influence leaders into adaptive or reactive behavior. |
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Adaptive Leader Behavior |
(p. 307) The degree to which a leader adapts to macro variables - the requirements of the larger organizational system and the nature of its processes. For example, a director of a DI athletic program must utilize different leadership skills than that of a DIII director. |
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Reactive Leadership Behavior |
(p. 308) The ways in which a leader's behaviors react to micro variables - the unique preferences of organizational members and the specific tasks to be performed by them. For example, coaching a football team compared to coaching a tennis team. |
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Five categories of power |
(p. 309) Legitimate power, reward power, coercive power, expert power, and referent power. |
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Legitimate Power |
p. 309 Based on a persons position/title within an organization. Power comes from position on heirarchy. |
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Reward Power |
(p. 310) Power comes from the ability of a leader to bestow a desired reward on another person. |
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Coercive Power |
(p.310) Power comes from a leader's ability to administer punishment. |
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Expert Power |
Power comes from the elevated knowledge, experience, or expertise possessed by leaders that others may not have access to. |
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Referent Power |
(p. 311) Power comes from the respect and admiration others have for the leader. |
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Leader-Member Exchange Theory |
(p.317) Evaluates the effectiveness of a leader based on how well a leader builds unique relationships with the organizations members. Leader-member relationships should vary throughout the organization. Good relationships founded on mutual trust, respect and support. |
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Transactional Leadership |
(p.318) Mainly only suited to stable work environments with satisfied members. Members and leaders engage in transactions with one another to benefit themselves, the leader, and the organization. Productive and efficient model, but does not always adapt to change well. Goal is to find equilibrium within this state while being open to transformational leadership as needed. |
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Transformational Leadership |
(p. 319) Leadership influences change within the organization rather than just engaging in the expected transactions. When leading a change within the organization, must also be able to influence change amongst members. Typically a very charismatic leader. Also employs "empowerment leadership." Cannot be a permeanent state. |
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Qualities of Empowerment Leadership |
(p. 322) Leading by example, invite participation into decision making, coaching of staff, informative about organizational goals, demonstrate care for members on a personal level. |
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Multi-dimensional Model of Leadership |
(p. 325-332) -Chelladurai's own theory Focuses on three states of leader behavior: required, preferred, and actual. The variables of situational characteristics, member characteristics, and leader characteristics detirmine the leader behaviors listed above. |
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Situational Characteristics |
Situational Characteristics affecting required leader behavior: technology, organizational goals, formal structure, group tasks, social norms, government regulation |
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Required Leader Behavior |
(p. 326) -what the leader must do and what they are not allowed to do. Determined by Situational Characteristics.
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Preferred Leader Behavior |
(p. 328-329) The preference of members for specific leader behaviors stem from situational characteristics and member characteristics (highly variable based on individual members and their needs). |
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Actual Leader Behavior |
(p. 329-30) -How a leader actually behaves in any given situation. -Leader needs to abide by demands and constraints of the situation and react appropriately to member preferences. -Will be significantly affected by individual leader characteristics |
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Leader Characteristics |
(pg.330) Significant leader characteristics identified in the multi-dimensional model include ability, knowledge, experience, and personality. |
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Three major categories in the evaluation stage |
(p. 336) Individual, Unit, and Organizational |
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Performance Appraisal |
(p. 337) Assessment or evaluation of the work of individual employees. Has two key purposes: 1. The developmental purpose: appraise individual perfocmances, identify strengths and weaknesses, discuss improvements and how to overcome barriers with members 2. The evaluative purpose: all employees appraised on common, standard criteria and then compared to one another. |
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Programs |
(p. 338) -Activities attempting to achieve a specific goal are group together as a program. -Typically assigned to one unit or department within a larger organizzation. -Programs also usually have specially allocated resources (human, material, monetary). - -Difference between a program and project is that programs are coarried out on a continuing basis. -More often public and non-profit |
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Programs from a Systems Perspective |
(p.342-343) Systems are made up of input, throughput, and output. In programs, input = resources and throughput = activities and tasks. Output also includes impact. |
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Program Evaluation |
(p.345) Review and assessment of the adequacy of objectives, design, and results - both intended and unintended. |
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Three Key Questions of Program Evaluation |
(p. 345) 1. Whether the program has achieved goals or reached intended outcomes. 2. Whether activities were carried out in accordance with specifications. 3. Were objectives achieved beacuse of the porgrams and its activites or because of something else? |
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Cost-Benefit Analysis |
(p. 345) Underlying theme in any program evaluation is to verify whether the program should exist at all given its cost relative to its impact on the public. |
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Six Key Purposes of Program Evaluation |
(p. 346) 1. Accountability/Credibility 2. Improved Performance 3. Cost-Effectiveness 4. Safety of participants 5. Breadth of Programs 6. Accessibility of programs. |
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Program Profile |
(p. 347) -Suggested way to start evaluation -Description of program, including background information, structure, processes, and expected outcomes and impacts. -Should also include: activities for delivy of program, personnel involved, distribution of responsibliities and authority |
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Program Logic |
(p. 347) Refers to the interrelatedness among the objectives, activities, personnel, structure, and outcomes. Connections must be based on correct reasoning. Inconsistencies would suggest a redesign. |
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8 Key Types of Standards of Evaluation |
(p. 348-352) 1. Meeting objectives 2. Standards set by experts 3. Judgment by professionals in field 4. Socioeconomic evaluation - how well does it serve nthe needs of the public? 5. Accessibility and safety 6. Cost Benefit - benefits accrued should exceed cost 7. Cost Effectiveness 8. Client Satisfication |
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Effectiveness v. Efficiency |
(p.357) Effectiveness is the extent to which goals can be attained while efficiency is the cost/benefit ration incurred in thepursuit of goals. |
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Five Signigicant Models of Organizational Effectiveness |
(p. 359) -Ultimate dependent variable in any organizational analysis. (1) Goals Model (2) System Resource Model (3) Process Model (4) Multiple Constituency Model (5) Competing Values Approach (See 14.2 on pg. 360 to see how it applies to a systems Approach) |
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Goals Model |
(p. 360-363) -Effectiveness is the degree to which goals are achieved. -2 Conditions: goal must be identifiable and organizational performance must be measurable. -Model may be limited by the fact that many organizations pursue multiple goals. |
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System Resource Model |
(p. 363-368) -Focuses on the inputs of an organization. -Effectiveness is the ability to exploit its environment in aquisition of valued resources - gains an advantageous bargaining position compared to other organizations in the same market. -EX: University competing with other nonprofits in region for donations will be considered effective if it secures the money the need for their goals. |
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Process Model |
(p. 368-374) -Emphasis on "throughputs" -Typically used if organization does not meet conditions of goals model and does not need to raise its own funding. -Organization is effective if throughput processes are logical, consistent, and without friction. -EX: Event management company judged on the overall flow of their processes without incident. |
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Multiple Constituency Model |
(p. 374-378) -Sets of criterion for effectiveness created by different individuals and croups refered to as constituencies. -Constituencies are owners, managers, employees, clients, suppliers, and other stakeholders. -Allows different stakeholders to value different goals.
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Competing Values Model |
(p. 378-382) - Based on the idea that it is impossible for an evaluation to be objective. -Values affect perspectives on organizational effectiveness. - Criteria is created in three dimensions of competing values: Internal v. external, flexibility v. stability, and means v. end. |
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Internal v. External Competing Values |
(p.379) Criteria based on whether organization is more concerned with its people or the organization itself |
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Flexibility v. Stability Competing Values |
(p. 379) Reflects competing views on whether there ismore concent with stability or identifying and implementing new ideas. |
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Means V. Ends Competing Values |
(p. 379-380) Reflects a focus on either the focus or the outcomes. |
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Four subsets of the Competing Values Model |
(p. 380) 1. Human relations model - focus on flexibility, internal criteria 2. Internal process model - Emphasis on control, internal focus, stability, 3. Open systems model - emphasizes flexibility, external focus, 4. Rational goal model - Emphasis on control, external focus, |
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Organizational Paradox |
(p.382 - 384) - Sometimes an organization has contradicorty sets of criteria and may engage in activities that may mutually undermine each other. For example, expecations of alumni, students, and athletes may have different criteria for considering a university athletics program successful. - Relativistic perspective says that evaluations of all constituencies are equally relavent. - Power perspective says the evaluations and preferences of some constituents needs to be satisfied above others. - Social Justice perspective says that the needs of the least powerful should be satisfied first. - Evolutionary perspective says that needs will always be changing and each constituent group will get their time to have preferences satisfied, but maybe not all at once.
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Prime Beneficiary Approach |
(p. 384-387) -Chelladurai's solution to the organizational paradox - Uphold the perspective of the prime beneficiary of the evaluation above other constituents. -EX: Evaluations of a private golf club should be based on members' views. Evaluations of a professional sports club as a member should uphold the owner's view. |
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Diversity |
(p. 393-395) Myriad of charactersitics that set apart individuals or groups from other individuals or groups. |
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Key Dimensions of Diversity |
Gender, Race, Age, Language, Religion, Nationality, Social/Economic/Educational Status, Sexual Orientation, Specialized Knowledge |
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Benefits of Diversity |
(p.399-400) -Opportunity to capitalize on the diverse talents and perspectives in order to solve organizational problems and enhance effectiveness of organizational processes -Diverse work forces are frequently viewed as being rich with creativity and innovation |
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Costs of Managing Diversity |
(p. 401) -Increased turnover or absenteeism if diversity is mis-managed - Monetary and material costs to provided needed resources such as wheelchair ramps, accomodating working mothers, etc -Group decision making will become more involved with more potential for conflict as a wide-variety of perspectives are shared. |
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Affirmative Action |
(p. 402) Governmental policy aimed at eliminating the discriminating effects of managerial policies that preclude equl employment opportunities |
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Valuing Diversity |
(p. 402) Three key qualities: 1. Accept diversity as a given 2. Recognize the advantages of a diverse workforce. 3. understand that the benefits of diversity can only be derived through appropriate managerial practices |
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Managind Diversity |
(p. 402-405) -Creating a climate in which the potential advantages of diversity are maximized while disadvantages are minimized. -A strategic approach to management that is always inclusive and reflecting the workforce diversity -Organizational interventions to ensure that a variety of talents and erspectives that exist are well utilized. |
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Learning Process for Diversity Competency |
Awareness -> Understanding -> Action |
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Eight Options for Handling Diversity |
(p. 405-409) 1. Include/Exclude 2. Deny 3. Assimilate 4. Suppress 5. Isolate 6. Tolerate 7. Build Relationships 8. Foster mutual Adaptation |
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Include / Exclude Diversity Management Method |
(p. 405) Amount of variablitity is either increased or decreased. The option to decrease variability is typically outlawed, but some organizations still restrict their membership to certain categories of people. |
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Deny Diversity Management Method |
(p. 405) Decision makers refuse to acknowledge difference among people, and thus there is less tolerance for gender or racial groupings. This option is not prevalent in the workforce any more. |
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Assimilate Diversity Management Method |
(p. 407) Minimizing diversity by insisting that diverse elements conform to dominant norms. |
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Suppress Diversity Management Method |
(p. 407) Managers may attempt to suppress manifestations of racial differences. Such examples could be in assigning uniforms without room for racial expression. |
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Isolate Diversity Management Method |
(p. 407-408) Isolate groups defined by gender or race. For example, a church with a large influx of hispanics hired a hispanic minister and arranged for separate services. Or a fitness club that holds separate classes for men and women, different age groups, etc |
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Tolerate Diversity Management Method |
(p. 408) Managers acknowledge differences but they are not treated equally. |
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Build Relationships Diversity Management Method |
(p. 408) Managment's efforts to manage diversity effectively with acceptance and understanding by cultivating positive relationships and harmony amongst members. |
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Foster Mutual Adaptation Diversity Management Method |
Every diverse element makes some changes in order to adapt to organizational and task requirements and achieve common objectives. |
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Culture |
-"Programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another" - "Unique set of values, beliefs, attitudes, and expectations as well as symbols, customs, and behaviors." |
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Conceptual Frameworks of Diversity in Sport (3 types of organizations) |
(p. 409) 1. Monocultural - emphasizes one chulture and expects others to adapt. 2. Multicultural - all cultural backgrounds are valued and accomodated 3. Transitional - changing in order to accomodate increasing diversity in the workforce |
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"Personal Culture" |
(p.409) Chelladurai theory - Rather than associating members with different, specific cultural groups, individuals bring their own cultures with them that they have derived from multiple places. |
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Organizational Stages of Multiculturalism |
(p. 409-410) - Applied differently in mono-culture and multi-culture organizations
1. Mission 2. Culture 3. Power 4. Informal relations 5. Major Change Strategies |
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Integrative Framework of Diversity in Sport |
(p. 412-420) -Competence must be cornerstone. Focus on job-performance related skills. -Distinguishing forms of Diversity: Surface level (observable) and deep-level (non observable differences. - Values diversity (openly acknowledge differences - no "color blindness" -Accomodates expression of diverse individuals (Ex: wearing a turban) - Activation - Deliberately bringing diverse perspectives together |
