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198 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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this compound is liner, un-branched with alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds
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amylose
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this compound is branched chain polymer with alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds
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amylopectin
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stored in the liver and skeletal muscle,highly branched, rich energy source
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glycogen
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major component of cell walls in plants with beta 1-4 glycosidic bonds and resistent to digestive enzymes.
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cellulose
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glucose is absorbed by what type of absorption
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active transport
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In the liver, galactose and fructose is converted to what molecule.
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glucose
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monosaccharides with an aldehyde group are called
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aldoses
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monosaccharides with ketone group are called
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ketoses
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In what position is the glucose molecule when OH group,found in the anomeric carbon, is at the bottom of the ring plane
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alpha position
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what hormone is responsible for glycogen synthesis
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insulin
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what two hormones are responsible for the regulation of glycogenolysis
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glucagon
epinephrine |
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what two hormones are responsible for the regulation of gluconeiogenesis
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glucagon
cortisol |
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glucocorticoid hormones, such as epinephrine and cortisal come from what gland
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adrenal gland
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glucose phosphorylated to glucose 6 phosphate is done by what enzyme(s)
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glucokinase (liver)
hexokinase( other tissues) |
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the path way responsible for the oxidation of glucose is
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glycolysis
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when pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA this condition is called
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aerobic
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when pyruvate is converted to lactate this condition is called
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anaerobic
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the complete oxidation of glucose to two pyruvate molecules will have produced a total of how many ATP
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2 ATP
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NADH produced in glycolysis can not enter mitochondrion directly, so it needs a shuttle system. what are they.
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malate-aspartate
glycerol 3-phosphate |
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how many mols of ATP are produced for every NADH
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3 mols ATP
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in the glycerol phosphate shuttle what is reduced to glyclerol3 phosphate
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dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)
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what compound is a donor of acetate for the synthesis of fatty acids, ketone bodies, energy and cholesterol.
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Acetyl CoA
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what enzyme is responsible for the chimical reaction that converts pyruvate to acetyl CoA
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pyruvate dehydrogenase
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what is the total number of ATPs produced for the complete oxidation of 1 mol of glucose
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36- 38 ATPs
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Converts energy from the electrons of NADH+H and FADH2 into ATP
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Electron Transport Chain
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what enzyme makes ATP from ADP as protons move down their consentration gradients.
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ATP synthase
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In the reaction that takes place in the ETC, where oxygen is the final accepter, what is produced?
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Water
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substances found in the ETC that carry H across the mitochondrial inner membrane to synthesize ATP are.
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Uncouplers
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What path way under aerobic conditions and high ADP concentrations, glucose 6-phosphate will rapidly be oxidized to CO2 via pyruvate to acetyl CoA
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glycolysis
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What pathway is used when there is a great need for new nucleic acids for cell division
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Pentose Phosphate Pathway or Hexose Monophosphate Shunt
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What pathway is responsible for the storage of glucose.
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glycogenesis
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The hexose monophosphate shunt is responsible for the generation of NADPH. NADPH is used for the synthesis of what molecule.
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Fatty acid
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The hexo monophosphate shunt produces what sugar that is used for the synthesis of DNA and RNA.
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Ribose 5- phosphate
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where does the hexo monophosphate shunt take place
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cytosol
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what type of cells does not have hexo monophosphate shunt enzymes
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Muscle cells
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The hexo monophosphate shunt takes place in the liver, fat tissue, adrenal cortex, and mannary glands. These type of tissue are consisidered to be...what?
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anabolic tissues
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In the oxidation phase of HMS, what are the (2) end products.
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ribulose 5 phosphate
NADPH |
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on the non- oxidative phase of the HMS what are the the end products.
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Ribose 5- phosphate
(2)F-6-P (1) glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate |
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The liver and muscle are the major storage sites of what molecule.
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Glycogen
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Hexokinase is an enzyme found in what type of tissue.
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Peripheral tissues
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Glucokinases is an enzyme found in what type of tissue.
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Liver tisssue
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what enzyme is responsible for the transportation of glucose-1-phosphate to a pre-existing glycogen molecule.
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UTP - uridyltransferase
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what enzyme is responsible for the production of amylose in an alpha1-4 glycosidic bond.
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glycogen synthase
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what enzyme is responsible for removing a block glucose residues and transfering it to another chain to produce an alpha 1-6 linkage.
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glycogen synthase
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What pathway is responsible for the breakdown of glycogen stores to produce glucose.
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glycogenolysis
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what enzyme is responsible for glycogenolysis
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glycogen phosphorylase
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in glycogenolysis a brabch point is also called
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limit dextrin
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the process of synthesizing glucose from non-carbohydrate sources
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gluconeogenesis
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Long, linear polymer of 1,4 beta linked glucose units.
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cellulose
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heterogeneous group of substances containing a number of sugars in its backbone and side chains.
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hemicellulose
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galacturonic acid, unbranched chain of 1-4 beta linkages.
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pectin
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functions as intracellular cement
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pectin
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a non-carbohydrate compound of fiber composed of phenol units
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lignin
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composed of primarily galactose and glucuronic acid
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gums
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a type of fiber derive from algae and seaweed
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carrageenan and agar
(mucilages) |
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products of fermentation of fiber
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1) SCFA: acetic, butyric and propionic acid
2) gases: hydrogen, CO2 and methane |
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what SCFA contributes to lowering cholesterol
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propionic acid
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fiber recommended intake minimum amount(range)
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20-25g/day
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fiber recommended intake maximum amounf (Range)
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40 up to 50g/day
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3 fatty acids + glycerol =
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TG
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faty acid + cholesterol =
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cholesterol ester
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fatty acid + any other alcohol other than glycerol =
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waxes
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palmitic acid source
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palm oil
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stearic acid source
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animal fat
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oleic acid source
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olive oil
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linoleic acid source
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corn oil
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butyric acid source
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butter fat
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lauric acid source
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coconut oil
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alpha- linolenic acid source
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flaxseed oil, fish oil, walnuts
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Arachidonic acid source
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liver fat
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fatty acids are considered essential because they lack what two enzymes
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12 and 15 desaturases
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enzyme responsible for the addition of double bonds in FA
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desaturases
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enzyme responsible for the addition of 2 carbons at the carboxyl end of FA chain
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elongase
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precursor of physiological important eicosanoids
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eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
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hormome like substance formed by body tissues during self-healing responses to stimuli.
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Eicisanoids
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eicosanoids are formed from precursor FA by what enzyme
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oxygenases
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what enzyme is responsible for freeing arachidonic acid from phospholipids
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phospholipases A2
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what pathway is responsible for the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes
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cyclo-oxygenase pathway (cyclic)
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what pathway is responsible for the production of leukotrienes
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lipoxygenase pahway (linear)
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Eicosanoids are tissue specific, Kidney, spleen, blood vessels, heart
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prostaglandins
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Eicosanoids are tissue specific, platelets
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thromboxanes
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Eicosanoids are tissue specific neutrophils
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leukotrienes
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Eicosanoids are tissue specific red blood cells
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none (no eicosanoids are found in RBC)
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what inhibits the cyclo-oxygenase cycle by inhibiting prostaglanins
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Aspirin
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what inhibits phospholipase 2A from freeing a free AA acid.
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Cortison
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fatty acids found in TG are released by what hormone
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hormone sensitive lipase (HSL)
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class of lipid characterized by a four ring core structure
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cholesterol
(sterols and steroids) |
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class of lipid that contains phosphate as common component
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phospholipid
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hormone that stimulates bile acid release and lipase from pancreas
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CCK ( chymocystinkinase)
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hormone that delays gastric emptying and bicarbonat production
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secretin
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what enzyme is activated by protein co-lipase, calcium ions, and bile salts. Its role is for the digestion of lipids
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pancreatic lipase
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phosphatidylcholine is also known as
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lecithin
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when lecithin is digested what are the two end products
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lyso phosphitic acid
and FFA |
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interact with brush border of enterocytes and aid in the absorption of lipids
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micelles
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once FFA and glycerol are absorbed what is the next step.
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re-esterification
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what type of transportation takes nutrients from intestine to tissue
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exogenous transportation
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what type of transportation takes nutrients from liver to peripheral tissue and from peripheral to liver.
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endogenous
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what type of lipoprotein enters lymphatic circulation
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chylomicron
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the protein portion part of lipo-proteins are called
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Apo- lipoprotein
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lipoprotein that mobilizes dietary lipids from intestine to other tissues.
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chylomicrons
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Chylomicron once found in the blood receives what apo-lipoprotein from high density lipoprotein.
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apo-lipoprotein CII
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what enzyme is found in the surface of endothelial cells of the capillaries of adipose tissue responsible for the breakdown of TG.
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lipoprotein lipase
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once chylomicron delivers FFA to tissues and apo CII goes back to HDL what is the new name of the chylomicron
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chylomicron remnant
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what lipoprotein is responsible for the transportation of cholesterol from peripheral tissue to liver
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high density lipoprotein
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what protein is responsible that HDL gives Cholesterol to IDL and HDL takes up TG from IDL.
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Cholesterol ester transfer protein
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once IDL collects cholesterol from HDL, IDL changes to what lipoprotein.
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Low density lipoprotein (LDL)
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what enzyme is responsible for transferring acyl group from lecithin to cholesterol to produce cholesterol ester.
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Lecithin cholesterol acyl transferase (LCAT)
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Fatty acids when needed as fuel, the FA will be broken down to what molecule.
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Acetyl CoA
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what enzyme is responsible for converting cholesterol to cholesterol ester.
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acyl cholesterol acyl transferase (ACAT)
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the process where SCFA are made is called
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lipogenesis
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when lipogenesis occurs, Acetyl CoA is converted to what molecule.
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Malonyl CoA
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when lipogenesis occurs, what molecule is the immediate precursor for FA synthesis.
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Malonyl CoA
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type of amino acid that is synthesized by micro-organisms and passed through the food chain until they reach our diet.
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essential amino acid
or indespensable |
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type of amino acid the is synthesized from the products of their catabolism.
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non-essential amino acids
or despensable |
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type of amino acid that is required when the endogenous systhesis cannont meet metabolic needs.
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conditionally indespensable
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what are the AAs that contain a sulfur side chain
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cysteine
methionine |
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what AAs contain an aromatic ring
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phenyalanine
tyrosine tryptophan |
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relatively small segment of DNA that codes for the synthesis of specific protein
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gene
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a type of protein that catalyzes chemical reactions
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enzyme
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type of protein that derives from cholesterol, where it regulates the synthesis and activity of enzymes.
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peptide hormone
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transthyretin transports
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vitamin A
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protein responsible for the transportation of oxygen
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hemoglobin
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protein responsible for the transportation of copper
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ceruloplasmin
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protein responsible for the transportation of iron
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transferrin
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retinol-binding protein transports
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vitamin A
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what are the two proteins responsible for the structure and function of muscles
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myosin
actin |
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what are the three fibrous proteins found in bone, teeth, connective tissue.
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collegen
karatin elastin |
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type of protein that is produced by B-lymphocytes, which function by binding to antagens and inactivating them
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immunoproteins
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a type of AA that has the ability to accept and donate hydrogen ions
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buffer
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type of protein that is bound to FMN of FAD is called
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flavoprotein
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type of protein that is bound to minerals is called
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metalloprotein
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what is responsible for the denaturing of proteins and activation of pepsinogen to pepsin
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HCl
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the pancreas secretes what enzymes that are responsible for the digestion of protein/ amino peptides.
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typsinogen
chymotrypsinogen |
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the catabolism of glutamine generates
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ammonia
and glutamate |
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most abundant, made by liver, 14-18 day half life, not a sensitive indicator of protein status.
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albumin
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half live less than 2 days, sensitive indicator of protein status
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transthyretin (pre-albumin)
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A nitrogen-containing compound made from glycine, glutamate, and cystein.
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glutathione
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A nitrigen containing compound made from lysine that transports LCFA into mitochondria for oxidation.
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Carnitine
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A nitrigen containing compound made from histidine and alanine that functions in nerve transmission
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Carnosine
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A nitrigen containing compound made from guanidino acetic acid
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creatine
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the process of removing of AA, but not transfering to another compound is called
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deamination
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the process of transfering one AA to another carbon skeloton is called
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transamination
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in transamination what vitamin is required in its coenzyme form
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Vitamin B6 (pyridoxal phosphate)
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when amino group is removed by deamination, the amino group is converted to what.
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ammonia
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this compound is made by ammonia, which is water soluble and excreted via the kidneys in urine.
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urea
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the process where ammonia is converted to urea is called.
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urea cycle
or ornithine cycle |
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urea is measured in the blood as:
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Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN)
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when blood urea nitrogen levels are elevated this condition is called.
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uremia
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This method will determine protein requirements by measuring nitrogen loss in people on protein free diet but with adequate calorie.
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Factorial
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a method to determine protein requirements by determinating the difference per day between intake and output of nitrogen.
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nitrogen balance
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structure of plasma membrane, both hydrophobic and hydrophilic moietys.
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phospholipids
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Alcoholic beverages that have a lower alcohol content (beer and wine) are produced by what process.
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fermentation
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beverages with higher alcohol content are produced by fermentation followed by what process.
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distillation
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what is considered one serving size of beer.
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12 ounce serving
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what is considered a serving size for wine.
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5 ounce glass
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what is considered a serving size for a 40% (ABV)alcohol by volume spirit.
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1.5 ounce glass
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is a consequence of chronic liver disease characterized by replacement of liver tissue by fibrous scar tissue
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Cirrhosis
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is a disorder of permanent birth defects that occurs in the offspring of women who drink alcohol during pregnancy.
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Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
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is a hydrogenated form of carbohydrate, whose carbonyl group has been reduced to a primary or secondary hydroxyl group
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sugar alcohols
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the process whereby mash is subject to high temperatures to release alcohol vapors, which are then condensed and mixed with water to make the final product.
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distillation
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a measure of the percentage of alcohol in a beverage
|
proof
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the ratio of alcohol to total blood volume, it it used to measure the physiological and behavioral effects of alcohol.
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blood alcohol Concentration (BAC)
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The enzyme begins the metabolism of alcohol in the stomach.
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alcohol dehydrogenase
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what is the primary site for alcohol metabolism.
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liver
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Alcohol is detoxified and removed from the blood through a process called
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oxidation
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alcohol dehydrogenase containing the coenzyme NAD+ converts ethanol to what compound.
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acetaldehyde
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once ethanol is converted to acetaldehyde, acetaldehyde in the liver is further oxidized to what three componds.
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acetic acid
CO2 water |
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related to alcohol, the accumulated of what compound actually exerts toxic effects by inhibiting the mitochondria reactions and functions.
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acetaldehyde
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responsible for membrane functions, sch as receptors, transportation, channels, and enzymes.
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proteins
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a cell component that fuctions in lipid metabolism, site for enzyme reactions, hormone production and is the detoxification site for harmful substances.
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smooth endoplasmic reticucum
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cell component that houses digestive enzymes
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Lysosomes
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cell component that promotes oxidative reactions and removes hydrogen from organic molecules.
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peroxisomes
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a type of protein that modifys the cell's responce to its environment, which is highly specific for a particular ligand.
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receptor
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part of the GI track that receives secretions from liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
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duodenum (small intestine)
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this compound contains cholesterol, phospholipids, biliruben, and mix salts.
|
Bile
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the common hepatic bile duct goes to the duodenum via what sphincter.
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sphincter of oddi
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this type of tissue found in the pancreas produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate.
|
acini
or ducted exocrine tissue |
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this type of tissue found in the pancreas secretes glucagon and insulin into blood.
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ductless endocrine tissue
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hormone produced by stomach cells, that stimulates HCl release and pepsinogen release.
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gastrin
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hormone produced in the SI, that stimulates the release of pancreatic enzymes and bile.
|
cholecystokinin (CCK)
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hormone produced in the SI, that stimulates bile, pepsin and bicarbonate release.
|
secretin
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its a type of neural regulation, where nerves come to the digestive organs from the unconscious part of the brain.
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extrinsic nerves
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it's a type of neural regulation, which makes a dense network or nerves embedded in the walls of the digestive organs.
|
intrinsic nerves
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what activates pepsinogen to pepsin the active form.
|
HCl
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necessary for vitamin B12 absorption
|
intrinsic factor
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some enzyme reactions require non-protein groups, such as an organic group. what are they called.
|
coenzymes (vitamins)
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some enzyme reactions require non-protein groups, such as an inorganic group. what are they called.
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cofactors (metals)
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enzyme regulation, where a phosphate group is added or removed.
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covalent modification
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A type of enzyme regulation, where the enzyme binds to a positive effector (activates) or a negative effector (inhibits) the activity of the enzyme.
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allosteric regulation
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type of enzyme regulation, that alters the amount of enzyme in the cell through controls over gene expression.
|
enzyme induction
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what SCFA contributes to lowering cholesterol more than the other ones
|
propionic acid
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In what complex of the ETC is ATP synthase located in.
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complex 5
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what complex is the terminus of the ETC, by consuming ozygen and makin water.
|
complex 4
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for cell division and serious need of nucleic acid which of the pathways will glucose 6 phosphate take.
|
hexomonophosphate shunt (HMS)
|
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which fatty acid is the first one that our body makes as the primary source for other fatty acid to be synthesized from
|
palmitic acid
|
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the U.S diet is high in what fatty acid?
|
arachidonic acid
|
|
|
is a form of severe protein-energy malnutrition characterized by energy deficiency.
|
Marasmus
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is a type of malnutrition caused by insufficient protein consumption.
|
Kwashiorkor
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