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164 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is involved in the male mating effort?
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sperm production, muscle mass, sex drive, male-male competition
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What does testosterone shunt energy into?
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Making muscle mass instead of fat
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If you look at testosterone levels, how do you tell who wins?
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The people with higher testosterone levels
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What does interaction with children do to testosterone levels?
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Causes levels to go significantly down
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Why is visible sclera useful?
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easier to see where people are looking, so might have evolved to do with communication
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How does taste work?
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10,000 tastebuds, mostly on tongue, arranged in buds around central pore
when a chemical gets dissolved in liquid, enters pore, bind to receptor causes depolarization |
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How much of flavor is from smell?
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80%!
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How do we smell?
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1. Odorant (air-born molecule) dissolves in mucous
2. Binds to receptor on olfactory nerve dendrite 3. Action potential travels to synapse in olfactory bulb (globerulus 10-100 neurons) 4. 12-36 glomeruli synapse per mitral cell 6. olfactory nerve carries stimulus to various parts of brain |
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What are macrosmats and microsmats?
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Macro -- rodents, other animals
Micro -- humans 1. we have small olfactory bulbs 2. fewer olfactory neurons 3. fewer functioning olfactory receptors but actually we don't really try to smell all that much because our noses are up from the ground our noses are especially turbulent (odor goes through slower) we also have ortonasal and retronasal pathways |
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Where is flavor perceived?
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The neocortex
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What are mechanoreceptors of touch?
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Meissner's corpuscles (light touch - feel pressure at less than 60 Hz)
Merkle's corpuscles (touch) Pacinian corpuscles (vibration, pressure) Ruffini corpuscles (temperature) |
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Where are most sensory systems?
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In head: nose to small, eyes to see, ears to hear, tongue to state
Goes along with origin of vertebrates - heads added above chordate body plan |
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What is the general pathway for sensory systems?
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Stimulus (photons, chemicals, sounds waves, pressure) -> receptor (photo, chemo, mechano) -> afferent neuron (action potential) -> brain (ascending pathway from brainstem to thalamus and cerebral cortex - except olfaction)
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From which part of the brain are eyes descended?
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Eyes are mostly outgrowth of forebrain (diencephalon) induced by special group of ectodermal cells (lens placode)
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What is the basic anatomy of an eye?
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cornea (translucent sclera)
iris (pigmented choroid) pupil aqueous humor lens vitreous humor 3-layered capsule (sclera, choroid, retina) optic nerve |
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What are the stages of seeing light?
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Stage 1: focusing by cornea (protects eye), cornea is curved, so light focuses by lens
radial shape and sphincter changes how much light gets in which iris- tinted fan-shaped muscle goes through aqueous humor Stage 2: focusing by lens (flexible transparent protein) - contraction permits focus on things close, relaxation focuses on far Stage 3: photoreception in retina optic nerve brings it from ganglia to brain |
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What is glaucoma?
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Overproduction of aqueous humor
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What is a lens?
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naturally convex, made of crystallin (transparent protein)
suspended by zonules attached to ciliary muscles |
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Why is near-sightedness associated with age?
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Lens doesn't pop back to being convex (which allows focus on things close up) because lens mineralizes
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What is myopia? Hyperopia?
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M caused by slightly long eyeball
H caused by slightly small eyeball (maybe dietary effects? fewer people used to be myopic) |
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What are rods and cones?
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Cone cells receive color
Rod cells receive light depolarize when light hits them, signals get sent to ganglion cells, goes from optic tract to brain Multiple rods synapse with cells One cone cells |
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Where does processing of visual information occur?
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In visual cortex in occipital lobe
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Describe rods.
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Chemical: rhodopsin - 120 million per eye
all over retina low acuity/high sensitivity, little color perception |
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Describe cones
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Chemical: opsin - 6 million
mostly in macula, especially in fovea, depressed area full of these cells high acuity/low sensitivity (color perception) we use blue red and green (trichromat) |
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What is trichromatic vision helpful for?
What are macula and fovea helpful for? |
1.Useful for selecting ripe fruits and leaves
2. Useful for seeing detail and rich color |
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What is stereoscopy?
What are monocular cues that we use? |
Ability to perceive depth
Relative size (more distant things are smaller) Clarity (more distant things are fuzzier) Parallax (more distant objects move less when we change position - like hand over the eye) binocular vision |
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What is binocular vision?
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Have them at the same plane gives more depth perception
Binocular vision (narrower range/more stereoscopy) versus Panoramic vision (wider range/less stereoscopy) |
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What is sound?
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pressurized waves of molecules
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How do we hear?
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Stage 1
1. Sound is reflected by earlobe (pinna) into earlobe 2. Sound is amplified/filtered in ear canal (resonator) 3. Sounds cause vibrations of tympanic membrane Stage 2 (middle ear): 4. Ear ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) amplify sound 5. Movements of ossicles vibrate oval window of inner ear 6. Vibrations pass of cochlea - turn vibrations into sensory stimulus (lower frequencies travel farther up the tube) Vibrations of basilar membrane displace hair cells in Organ of Corti Stage 3 Organ of corti hair cells end in stereocilia which touch stationary tectorial membrane Vibrations open K+ channels which depolarize cell, opening voltage gated Ca++ channels to trigger neurotransmitter (glutamate) release to cochlear nerve |
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How do we localize sound?
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Interaural level difference (left side versus right side)
or interaural timing difference (low frequencies) |
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What affects balance?
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The vestibular system
cells that send information to body - angular rotation |
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What is the role of the immune system?
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Broadcast, mobile sources and targets, detection of "non-self" indicators, coordination of mobile defenses, "search and destroy," rapid clonal expansion
fights against viruses, bacteria, protozoa & metazoa |
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What are some key parts of adaptive immunity?
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Lymphocytes
Reptiles: lymph nodes Birds: IgA Humans: more and more |
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What are some aspects of the innate (non-specific) immune system?
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Soluble: complement, acute phase proteins, histamine, cytokines
Cellular: macrophages, mast cells, polymorphonuclear cells (pmn cells) |
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What are some aspects of the acquired (adaptive, specific) immune system?
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antibodies, B cells, T cells, memory cells
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What are leukocytes?
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White blood cells derived from hemopoietic stem and classified by their appearance under the microscope
Lymphocytes (b cells, t cells) Neutrophil (Polymorphonuclear cells) Monocytes (Macrophages, Dendritic cells) Eosinophil (Multicellular parasites) Basophil (mast cells) Megakaryocytes (clotting) |
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What are lymphocytes?
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White blood vells... B, T, NK cells (20-40% of white blood cells)
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What do eosinophils do?
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Attack multicellular parasites, certain infections, also some viruses
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What do mast cells do?
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Associated with IgE, to release histamines, cytokines
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What is complement fixation?
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the process of initiating the complement cascade
activate immunity, disposal system, adaptive immunity |
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What is opsonization?
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Enhancement of phagocytosis by coating with C3b
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What is complement?
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A series of protein, especially complement protein C3, C3a, C3b (stimulates mast cells to secrete histamine)
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What are cytokines?
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Carry messages back and forth between white blood cells
interleukin - carry info between white blood cells |
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What is cytolysis?
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Loss of cellular contents through transmembrane channel formed by membrane attach complex C5 - C9
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Describe the major histocompatibility complex.
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series if genetic elements on chromosome 6 that get combined randomly
generates receptors and markers |
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What is the purpose of inflammation?
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Increase of blood vessel permeability and chemotactic attraction of phagocytes
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Describe the lymph system.
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System of vessels through body that carries cellular debris and fluid (lymph) - sewer system of body
dumped back into heart lymph does are swlling along the way moves because muscles are squeezing vessel |
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What is the pathway for hemostasis?
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When a vessel is damage, it exposes collagen in blood vessel which attracts platelets. Eventually, creates a platelet plug.
They also create thromboxane, which causes blood vessels to contract prostaglandins and nitric oxide to constrain the attachment just to vicinity of damage |
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What is thrombin?
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Local hormone that stimulates fibrinogen to form fiber
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What does factor 13a do?
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Makes a cross-linked mat out of fibers created by thrombin -- this is what hemophiliacs lack
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What is inflammation?
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Generic name for non-specific immune response
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What does histamine do?
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(from mast cells) Causes capillaries to leak, releasing phagocytes and clotting factors into the wound
and then the phagocytes engulf the bacteria |
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How does complement support phagocytosis?
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C3b enhances phagocytosis
Inflammation increases attraction of phagocytes |
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What kinds of cells screen for foreign invaders?
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Lymphocytes - B and T cells
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What are MHC proteins?
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Proteins that display the markers by which your cells can be differentiated from invaders
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What are antibodies?
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Proteins produced by lymphocytes to have capacity to bind specific molecules based on 3-D, structural correspondence
made of MHC elements (such as gammaglobulin, t cell markers, human leukocyte) |
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What are antigens?
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Molecules that can be bound by antibodies
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What are some differences between the innate and acquired immune system?
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Innate system is:
Fast, non-specific, local, mobilizes resources that are already available Acquired system is: Slower, specific, systemic, depends on massive clonal proliferation and antibody production very expensive system to run |
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Where are constant regions and variable regions found?
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In MHC elements that are combined to form antibodies
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What do all nucleated cells have?
What do all lymphocytes have? |
HLA class 1
HLA class 2 |
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What are t cell marker proteins?
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CD4 (helper)
CD8 (cytotoxic) |
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What do hypervariable regions at tips of T and B cells do?
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Bind to a nearly limitless range of antigens
But each one has a different variant of this receptor |
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Where do B cells undergo the maturation process?
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in bone marrow
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Where do t cells mature?
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In the thymus, yet another structure with a cortex and a medulla... precursor cells are selected to present either CD4 or CD8 proteins ("positive selection")
then in the medulla, differentatiated to have different MHC proteins "negative selection" |
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What is the problem with dealing with viruses?
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Finding the cells that have been infected - helper t cells can't bind to antigens within infected cells, so cytotoxic T cells (CD8) have to identify and kill infected cells
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What does it take to kill bacteria?
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Identify characteristics of invading bacteria
Target and destroy invading bacteria: Helper T cells (CD4) B cells Immunoglobulins A,G, M phagocytes & complement |
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What does it take to kill protozoa and metazoa?
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Identify characteristics of invading organisms, block entrances, trap and poison invaders.
Helper T cells (CD4), B cells, Immunoglobulin E, Mast cells, Eosinophils |
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What are antigen presenting cells?
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B cells (going through MHC 2 proteins of lymphocytes), dendritic cells, any virus-infected nucleated cell (chops up protein of virus to attach to MHC Class 1 proteins to show idea cards),
macrophages |
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What happens to activated cytotoxic t cells?
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First, MHC 1 presents the intra-cellular antigens. Then, t-cells undergo clonal expansion, find cells infected with the identified virus, and kill them by secreting perforins, that form holes in membrane of cells
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What happens once T and B cells are activated?
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clonal expansion
antibody production by B cells after transformation into secretory plasma cells creation of memory B cells |
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Where does antigen presentation occur?
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In lymph nodes... lymph flows through lymph nodes from afferent ducts entering at the cortical surface, past nodules containing germinal centers, through the medulla to the efferent ducts
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What causes your lymph nodes to swell up?
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Clonal expansion when they are stimulated
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Where do lymphocytes and plasma cells flow through?
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Efferent ducts of lymph node and through the heart through the superior vena cava in search of the enemy
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What is the unit structure of all antibodies?
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Two protein chains with a trunk and two branches - two heavy and light chains (each with a binding site)
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How does IgG Fc region facilitate transport across the placenta from mother to fetus?
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It provides binding sites for macrophages and PMNs
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What triggers complement cascade ("complement fixation") which consequent release of cytokines?
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IgG Fc regions
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What are IgG molecules nearly identical to?
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B cell receptors
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Describe IgM.
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Pentameric molecule with five times the number of binding sites as an IgG antibody, making it particularly effective in forming complexes
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What is the difference between IgM and IgC?
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IgM is less specific and is produced more rapidly
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Describe IgA
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"two unit" antibody produced in respiratory and digestive tract
attack infections before they enter tissues of blood stream it also activates macrophages and triggers complement fixations also goes into breast milk so baby gets antibodies in baby |
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Describe IgE
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for cells lining respiratory and digestive tracts, directed at protozoan and metazoan parasites, responsible for allergic reactions to non-parastic triggers
IgE cells degranulate to release histamine and other cytokines to call in eosinophils |
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What happens in asthma?
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Histamine in respiratory tracts causes constriction of bronchioles and mucus secretion
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What is a flu shot?
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Exposure to antigens in the hopes that your immune system will be able to respond more rapidly the next time
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What happens to memory B cells?
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stay in lymphs and are associated with dendritic cells, so it's easy to recognize the second time
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What happens in HIV?
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attacks helper T cells, binding to CD4 proteins to develop entry into the cell,
progressively deplete helper T cell population also depletes memory b cells, to lose more adaptive immunity |
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What is the difference between osmoconformers and osmoregulators?
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Conformers change ionic composition with environment
Regulators keep things fairly constant |
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What is regulated by the kidney?
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Blood volume and blood pressure (by adjusting volume lost in urine)
Plasma ion concentrations (sodium, potassium, and chloride ions by controlling quantities lost in urine, calcium ion levels) Blood pH (by controlling loss of H ions and bicarbonate ions in urine) Valuable nutrients like glucose (by preventing excretion of nutrients, while excreting organic waste products) Nitrogenous waste from protein catabolism (by excreting urea) |
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What do kidneys do?
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Form a filtrate of the blood that is modified by reabsorption and secretion; urine designated for excretion moves along the ureters to the bladder
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Where are kidneys located?
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Either side of vertebral columns
(left kidney superior to right kidney) overlying peritoneum - not located within the body cavity proper |
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How much of the blood supply does kidney receive?
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About 20% of cardiac output
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What are nephrons?
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The functional units of kidney located in cortex and medulla, drains into renal pelvis
About 1 million nephrons |
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Be able to draw path of urine.
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Glomerulus, bowman's capsule, loop of henle, renal pelvis, etc.
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What kind of exchange do kidneys do?
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Counter current multiplier
counter current where part of ascending limb is impermeable to water |
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Where does initial filtration in kidney occur?
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Bowman's capsule... glomerulus
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Which limb of the nephron is impermeable to water?
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The ascending limb
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What are hormonal controls of kidney?
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1. ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) = vasopressin
makes distal tubes, collecting ducts more permeable to water, making it a more dilute uring 2. Aldosterone is secreted by the adrenal cortex, stimulates Na+ absorption by the distal tubules 3. Low blood Ca+++ stimulates patathyroid hormoin to increase Ca+++ resorption |
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What is osmoregulation like in birds?
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birds have short loops of urine, so can't make concentrated urine
so have extrarenal routes of salt excretion through nasal passages turtles secrete salt around eye |
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From what germ layer does the urogenital system form?
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Intermediate mesoderm
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Where are somites formed from?
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Paraxial mesoderm
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What are the ridges called in which the urogenital system is formed?
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Nephric
Genital (closer to middle) |
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What are other words for the wolffian duct?
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Archinephric duct
Mesonephric duct |
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Where do primordial germ cells migrate?
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Along the wall of hindgut and dorsal mesentery into the genital ridge
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Describe male and female differentiation...
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Male -- keeps wolffian duct but mullerian duct disintegrates and mesotubules turn into seminiferous tubules
Female - degeneration of Wolffian tube keep mullerian duct, and oviduct |
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Where are kidneys developed along the archinephric duct?
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1. Pronephros
2. Mesonephros 3. Metanephros |
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What kind of kidney do fishes have?
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A head kidney
they have a lot of pronephros Reptiles have mesonephros Mammals with metanephros |
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Where do gonads end up in the body?
The kidney? |
Gonads descend from site of original formation to a much lower position
The kidney ascends to position |
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Torque
or moment M = |
tendency of force to cause rotation about an axis
M=Fg x R = Fm x r |
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Mechanical advantage=
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ratio of moment arms (R/r)
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R=
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GRF moment arm
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r =
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muscle moment arm
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What are problems with wheels?
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muscles can't rotate
bumps are a problem |
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What do legs require?
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Fluctuation in center of mass
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How does speed affect loading?
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At faster speeds, Tc decreases, requiring higher Gv (vertical ground force)
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What senses temperature?
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Thermosensory receptors in hypothalamus in core
Unmyelinated nerve endings in skin and other organs sense change in temperature |
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How is heat production stimulated?
How is heat reduced? |
Shivering and activity
Peripheral vasoconstriction, sweating |
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What happens during a fever?
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Macrophages release endogenous pyrogens
Hypothalamus synthesizes prostaglandins which elevate Tset Negative feedback from vasopressin |
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What is the Heat Balance Equation?
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0 = + Hmetabolism + Hconduction + Hradition - Hevaporation
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What part of body produces most heat at rest?
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Abdominal organs
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Be able to draw endothermic response to changes in environmental temperature.
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Slope of H metabolism over temperature with conductance C
Lower critical temperature - thermoneutral zone - upper critical temperature Metabolism is higher when it's cold insulation moves line further down |
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Where does most evaporation occur?
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Tongue and respiratory epithelium on most animals
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What are apocrine glands associated with?
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Wax, triglycerides, fatty acids
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What are eccrine glands associated with?
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Water, salt
most mammals have them only on palms human have a lot |
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What does the testis determining factor (a product of the SRY gene) cause?
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migrating germ cells in a male associate with the inner, medullary portion of the sex cords
join to wollfian duct to form seminiferous tubules, rete testis, epididymis, and vans deferens |
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What happens in the absence of TDF?
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germ cells associate with outer cortical portion of sex cords, which produce clusters of granulosa cells to surround each oogonium. may be shed to the exterior of the organ in ovulation
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When do testes become active?
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End of first trimester... transformation of testosterone to DHT causes development of male external genitalia
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Does the egg or sperm invest more heavily into reproduction?
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The egg
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When do women have the most eggs?
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Mid gestation... only goes downhill from there
she guards quality because there is less mitotic division |
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Be able to draw the seminiferous tubules/identify stuff on picture.
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No blood on inside, sertoli cells (nurse cells) on inside, gametes, leydig cells (which produce testosterone on outside)
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What makes sperm move?
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Midpiece densely packed with mitochondria
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What part of the nervous system drives erection and ejaculation?
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Erection - parasympathetic
Ejaculation - sympathetic |
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What is in ejaculate?
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High amounts of fructose, amino acids from seminal vesicle, stuff from prostate
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What is GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) and what does it do?
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Tiny peptide that is released inpulses, causing levels of luteinzing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) to rise
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What is Kallman's syndrome?
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Failure of development of the olfactory placode which gives rise both to the olfactory bulbs and to the GnRH secreting neurons of the hypothalamus
can be treated with pulses of GnRH |
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Describe patterns of testosterone in men.
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Decrease from 20s... Higher levels in US, but also more extreme decrease
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List some similarities between ovaries and testes.
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1. Cooperation between cells inside and outside of basement membrane (something that cuts off exposure to blood supply)
2. Outer cells respond to LH, produce testosterone (Leydig cells in males, Theca cells in females) 3. Inner cells respond to FSH, nurture gametes, secrete inhibin (Sertoli cells in males, granulosa cells) 4. Once established, gamete maturation can proceed on steroid support without FSH |
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Be able to draw gonads
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LH going to Theca cells on outside, FSH going into sartoli/granulosa cells, inhibin going out
also estradiol (produced from testosterone) |
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What happens from primary follicle to secondary follicle?
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Theca cells, granulosa cells grow, more liquid comes in
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Describe the tertiary graafian follicle.
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Developing oocyte, hasn't created first meiotic division, shed cells around it
Has a cumulus oophorous to shield oocyte from mother's immune system |
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Describe the corpus luteum.
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After ovulation, basement membrane is disrupted, and the theca and granulosa cells mingle to become the corpus luteum (yellow body), start to produce progesterone... turns into corpus albicans
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Where is GnRH produced?
Where are FSH and LH produced? |
1. Hypothalamus
2. Anterior pituitary |
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Describe the process of the selection of the dominant follicle.
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FSH -> granulosa cell proliferation -> inhibin production and estradiol production
estradiol -> follicle growth, oocyte maturation inhibin -> fsh suppression the one that gets to fsh suppression first wins (has greatest growth potential, grows most robustly, so is the best, also produces enough E2 to support own growth) |
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What triggers ovulation?
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Surge of LH
(be able to draw hormone levels) |
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Describe the cycle of endometrial thickness (or be able to draw it).
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Grows as estrogen and progesterone increase. (Without progesterone, endometrial lining is lost through menstruation, so blocking progesterone receptors is part of RU486 abortion)
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Why does the female have so many barriers for sperm?
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Reproductive track goes right into body cavity, so she must protect herself
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How does sperm get through cervix?
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LH changes cervical mucus that make it much more watery so sperm can get in
mucin fibers tend to fall out of cervix, make it fall longitudinally so sperm can follow fibers |
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Why is fallopian tube covered with fine cilia?
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Ovum has no way of moving of its own, so that's how it moves down
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What is the PH like in the female reproductive tract?
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Semen neutralizes the acidic PH of the vagina
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What happens to immune system during ovulation?
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Immune factors suppressed (like IgG, IgA, and Complement)
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How do sperm get to membrane?
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Sperm starts moving head vigorously, acrosome (layer of enzymes packed in head) has enzymes that are released to dissolve passage way
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Is ovarian function reflected by menstrual patterns?
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No -- you can still have menses with follicular or luteal suppression
only really noticed after ovulatory failure |
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What can you find in saliva?
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Hormones like estradiol and progesterone to quantify levels of ovarian function, which can be a good indicator of whether a woman can conceive
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What does restricting calories cause?
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Loss of ovarian function (lower levels of salivary progesterone)
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What does nursing do?
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Stimulate milk production via prolactin, and stimulates milk let-down via oxytocin... But it also suppresses ovarian function
frequent nursing suppresses ovarian function more so nursing means it takes a long time to resume ovulation |
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What is the equation for the storage of potential energy?
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U = 0.5kx
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What is the role of tendons and ligaments?
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They act as springs
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Why is human locomotion less costly than that of other animals?
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We exert less hip torque, so we use less muscle.
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What is the cost of swing equation?
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I = mr^2 (explains why ankle is thinner than thigh)
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What are ways of decreasing failure stress?
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1. Repair micocracks through remodeling with osteoclasts, osteoblasts, and Haversian systems
2. Increase mineral density (exercise!) 3. Make the bone/tendon larger |
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Why did we evolve to be bipedal?
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To save energy and to stand when feeding
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What is the inverted pendulum model?
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Potential energy associated with raise of center of mass
Kinetic energy associated with lowered center of mass |
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What are determinants of gait?
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1. Medial rotation (increases stride length, decreasing nadir of COG)
2. Pelvic tilt (decreases zenith of trajectorial arch) 3. Knee flexion during stance (decreases zenith of trajectory) 4. Controlled plantarflexion at heel strike (lowers trajectory of leg) 5. Powered plantarflexion (raises heel - requires an arch) |
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Describe the running gait.
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Bouncy
Aerial phase in air COG in front of hip No full heel strike Knee bent at foot strike Knee bent during swing Opposite arm swing |
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What is an important muscle for stabilization?
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Gluteus maximus
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Why can humans go long distances?
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Persistence hunting to drive prey into hypothermia
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