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75 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Hierarchy of Organization
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cells, tissues, organ, organ system, organism, populations, communities, biosphere.
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chemical bonds
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covalent (sharing e-)
ionic (complete transfer of e-) hydrogen van de waals |
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4 main macromolecules
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carbohydrate, protein, nucleic acid, lipids
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roles of macromolecules
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energy storage, structural support, transport, protection and defense, regulation of metabolic activities, means for movement, growth, and development, heredity
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amino acid structure
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hydrogen atom, amino group (H3N), alpha carbon, carboxyl group (COO-), R group
L amino more common than D |
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amino acid with electrically charged hydrophilic side chain (+) (3)
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arginine, lysine, histidine
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amino acide with polar but uncharged side chains(5)
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serine, threonine, asparagine, glutamine, tyrosine
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amino acid with electrically charged hydrophilic side chains (-) (2)
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aspartic acid
glutamic acid |
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amino acid: nonpolar hydrophobic side chains (7)
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alanine, isoleucine, leucine, methionine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, valine
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the 3 amino acids with exceptions:
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cysteine- terminal disulfide (-s-s)
glycine-H atom as R group proline- modified amino group forms covalent bond with R group, forming ring |
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4 levels of protein structure
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primary: precise sequence of aa in pp chain (covalent).
secondary: regular repeated spatial patterns in different region of pp chain (hydrogen) alpha helix, beta pleated sheet tertiary:pp chain bent @specific sites folded back and forth quartenary:subunits bind together and interact (hemoglobin) |
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why need proteins?
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-enzymes need certain surface shapes in order to bind substrates correctly
-carrier proteins in the cell surface membrane allow substances to enter cell -chemical signals such as hormones bind to proteins on the cell surface membrane. |
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proteins affected by environmental factors?
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high temp, pH change, higher concentration of polar substances, leads to denaturation
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function of carbohydrates
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energy storage, transport molecules, structural components
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macromolecule linkages
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carbohydrates: glycosidic linkage, van der waals forces
lipids:ester linage (triglyxeride) |
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lipid functions
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-energy storage
-cell membranes -capture of light energy -hormones and vitamins -thermal insulation -electrical insulation of nerves -water repellency |
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lipid structure
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choline, phosphate, glycerol, and fatty acid. (polar head, nonpolar tail)
phospholipid bilayers |
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importance of cell division
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reproduction
development maintenance of organs |
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genetic materials
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linear DNA molecules associated with proteins (histone).
chromosomes (DNA and proteins) diploid (2n) |
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mitotic cell cycle
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interphase: G1 (cell growth), S, G2 (cell preparation).
Mitosis: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase. cytokinesis |
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prophase
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chromosomes condense
nucleolus disappears mitotic splindle begins to form (centrioles, microtubules, sister chromatids, nuclear envelope) |
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prometaphase
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nuclear envelope breaks down.
kinetochore formation occurs (non/kinetochore microtubules) |
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metaphase
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alignment of chromosomes occurs
distinct form of condensation |
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anaphase
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spindle separates chromosomes (homologous)
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non kinetochore microtubules
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sliding of nonkinetochore microtubules pushes poles apart increasing the total length of the spindle
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kinetochore microtubules
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motor protein of the kinetochore of the chromosome walks along the microtubule pulling the chromosome with it
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telophase
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spindle disassmebles
chromosomes decondense nucleolus reappears new nuclear envelope forms |
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cytokinesis
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division of cytoplasm to produce 2 daughter cells
microfilaments form and contract to constrict the cell in the middle until the 2 cells separate |
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nucleic acids functions
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polymers used for storage and transmission of information
2 types: DNA (encodes hereditary info and trasnfer info to RNA)and RNA (info is decoded to specify sequence of aa in proteins) |
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nucleotide structure
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has phosphate group, sugar (pentose), and base
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bases in nucleotides and structures and functions
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pyramidine (single ring): cytosine, thymine, uracil
purines: (fused ring): adenine, guanine |
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nucleic acid linkage
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phosphodiesters.
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sexual reproduction. what cell division?
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meiosis. produces gametes that are haploid (n). produces 4 cells that are genetically different
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brief meiosis
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homologous chromosomes, they replicate, then exchange segments, 1st meiotic division, 2nd meiotic division
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prophase 1
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chromatids condense
homo pairs (tetrads align) recombination occurs |
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recombination
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homo chromosomes held by protein complex called synaptonemal complex
exchange of alleles is by breaking and rejoining DNA fragments |
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metaphase 1
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homo chrom. align at equatorial plane
independent assortment |
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anaphase and telophase 1
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homo chromosome separate
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spermatogenesis
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occurs in seminiferous tubule of testes
3 types of cells: spermatozoa sertoli (blood testic barrier) leydig (testerone) |
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spermatozoa
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3 parts: head, midpiece, tail
head: nucleus, acrsomes (enzymes for fertilization), midpiece (contains a lot of mitochondria), tail (contractile filaments) |
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oogenesis
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sex cells in meiosis I, resulting cells are primary oocytes in meiosis I arrested state, prior to ovulation a primary completes meiosis I and starts meiosis II. secondary oocyte is arrested meiosis II. supporting cells around oocyte called follicle.
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menstrual cycle: 2 phases
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follicular phase(estrogen level is high), luteal phase (progesterone is high).
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follicle
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primordial,preantral, early antral, then mature follicle contains antrum, oocyte, zona pellucida, granulosa cells, theca cells
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first 6 days of development
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zygote, blastomere, morula, blastocyst,
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blastocyst
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trophoblast (placenta), epiblast (amniotic sac), hypoblast (digestive tube)
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ectoderm
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skin, brain, spinal cord
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endoderm
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lining of digestive and respiratory tract
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Photosynthesis two pathways
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light reaction (driven by light energy) produces ATP, NADPH + H+
Calvin Benson cycle uses ATP, NADPH + H+, CO2 to produce sugar |
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location of photosynthesis
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choloroplast contains grana (flat structure), each granum made of thylakoids, membrane of thylakoids contains chlorophyll
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Light Reactions
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photons strikes pigment molecule, electrons high energy level, energy released, electron returns to ground state, stimulates nearby pigment, repeats until reach reaction center P680. e- from P680 transferred to e- acceptor, becomes P680+, enzymes causes splitting of water molecules, electrons from splitting of water return to P680. e- from photosystem II pass to Photosystem I through ETC. in photosystem I, e- passed to Fd, NADP reductase catalyzes the transfers of e- to NADP+ becomes NADPH
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ETC: PQ?
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plastoquinone
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ETC: Cyt?
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cytochrome
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ETC: PC?
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plastocyanin
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ETC:Fd?
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ferrodoxin
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NADP reductase
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reduces NADP+ to NADPH
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light independant reaction
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calvin benson cycle
produces ATP, NADPH, CO2 to make sugar |
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Calvin Benson cycle
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co2 to ribulose 1,5 bisphosphate [rubisco] to six carbon skeleton of reaction intermediate to 3 phospho glycerate.
end product: glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate, G3P 5/6 cylced back to RuBP |
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ATP use
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exergonic rxns (catabolism) produce ATP, ATP used to power endergonic rxns (active transport, cell movement, anabolism)
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3 metabolic processes used for breakdown of glucose for energy
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glycolysis, cellular respiration, fermentation
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with O2 present four major pathways operate
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glycolysis, pyruvate oxidatoin, citric acid cycle, respiratory chain (ETC).
(can be used in different combinations) |
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when no O2 is available, glycolysis is followed by?
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fermentation
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location of glycolysis and fermentation
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external to mitochondrion
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location of ETC
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inner membrane of mitochondria
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location of citric acid cycle and pyruvate oxidation
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matrix
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pyruvate oxidation
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pyruvate with coenzyme A (pyruvate oxidation) to acetyl CoA. Inner mitochondria membrane: NADH, substrate for CAC
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Citric Acid Cycle
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reactants:starts with pyruvic acid (3C).
products: NADH, GTP to ATP, FADH2 |
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products of citric acid
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6 NADH, 2FADH2, 2 ATP
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products of glycolysis
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2 ATP, 2 NADH
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where does the hydrogen move to in ETC?
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the hydrogen ions go from low concentration in matrix to high concentration in the intermembrane space.
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ETC components
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complex I, NADH dehydrogenase, Complex II, Succinate dehydrogenase, Ubiquinone, cytochrome, reductase, cytochrome c, cytochrome oxidase to complex IV
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where does the hydrogen move to in ETC?
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the hydrogen ions go from low concentration in matrix to high concentration in the intermembrane space.
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ETC components
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complex I, NADH dehydrogenase, Complex II, Succinate dehydrogenase, Ubiquinone, cytochrome, reductase, cytochrome c, cytochrome oxidase to complex IV
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Glycolysis chemical reaction steps (1-10)
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Glucose (hexokinase) (ATP to ADP), Glucose 6 phosphate(phosphohexoisomerase), Fructose 6 phosphate (phosphofructokinase)(ATP to ADP), Fructose 1,6 biphosphate (aldolase), [two molecules each from now on] Dihydroxyacetonephosphate (DAP) (isomerase), 3 phosphoglyceraldehyde (triose phosphate dehydrogenase) (Pi to NAD+ to NADH+ H+), 1,3 biphosphoglycerate (phosphoglycerate kinase) (ADP to ATP), 3 phosphoglycerate (phosphoglyceromutase), 2 phosphoglycerate (enolase) (H20 given off), phosphoenolpyruvate (pyruvate kinase) (ADP to ATP), pyruvate
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plasma membrane functions
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acts as selectively permeable barrier
interface for cells where information is recceived from adjacent cells and extracellular isgnals, allows cells to maintain a constant internal envt., has molecules that are responsible for binding and adhering to adjacent cells keeps constant internal temperature |
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Rough endoplasmic reticulum
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membrane bounded flattened sacs
fluid filled vesicles functions in protein synthesis attached to nucleus studded with ribosome lumen |
