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232 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what major characters define animal clade?
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genetic (rRNA), body cavity design (coelom, mesoderm), body symmetry, segmentation, embryology, Hox genes, unique junctions between cells, common sets of matrix molecules
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desnity - what is more dense than what
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fresh water, sea water, fats and oils, muscles, bone
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buoyancy
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easier to be buoyant in water, use materials less dense than water, fats and oils, air (swim bladder; reduce heavy materials - bone, shells
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ctenophores
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open water, diploblastic (2 cell layers, endoderm and ectoderm), complete gut, move by using band of cilia, catch small prey with sticky cells; neutrally buoyant (no bones or shell, little muscle), mesoglea- between tissue layers, selectively exclde sulfate ions, less dense than h20, low metabolic activity, known as comb jellies, radially symmetrical, food enters through mouth and waste exits thru anal pores, fertilization takes place in open sea water, life cycles uncomplicated, gametes released into body cavity and discharged through mouth or anal pores and zygote develops directly into mini ctenophore that grows into adult
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buoyancy in air --
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lowest density possible biologically>density of air
fall but very slowly .. stokes equation |
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stokes equation : implications
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implications - organisms can't change density or viscosity of air or water; size and density CAN change; size- very small, fall very slowly; projections - increases drag, fail more slowly = dandelion seeds, foraminiferans;
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stokes eqution: being small
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smaller objects fall more slowly, if slow enough currents and eddies will keep afloat; air - organisms very small; water - organisms can be much larger
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marine plankton : stokes law and buoyancy adaptations
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plankton = small organisms, larvae and gametes that drift wtih currents; consequences in water - large single celled organisms in plankton, external fertilization, complex life cycle, filter feeding
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complex life cycle in animals
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life cycle goes through 2 ecologically distinct phases; marine and fw organisms can have a dispersing larval phase - easier when they can use fluid medium, can also have distinct life stages (adult -> larvae -> adult)
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cnidarians
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stinging cells cnidocytes to catch prey, diploblastic, incomplete gut, radial symmetry, alternate between polyp and medusa forms, used toxin in nematocysts to capture large, complex prey, mouth connected to blind sac called gastrovascular cavity - fnx in digestion, curculation, gas exchange, acts in hydrostatic skeleton; reproduces asexually by budding and also release eggs and sperm into water as medusa, have epithelial cells with muscle fibers whose contractions enable animals to move, as well as simple nerve nets to integrate body activity, like ctenophores in its inert mesoglea, low met rates, can survive when prey infrequent
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anthozoans
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polyp or sessile phase dominants, includes corals, sea anemones, sea ferns
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hydrozoans
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typically small, includes only freshwater cnidarians, simple polyp and medusa phases; mature polyp produces medusa asexually, most colonial, single planula larva gives rise to colony of many polyps, share continuous gastrovascular cavity, some have tentacles with nematocysts to capture prey, others lack tentacles and specialized for other things
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anthozoans - coral
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form coral reefs, contain zooxanthellae, coral body plan - many polyps stretched over hard skeleton, each polyp is a mouth with blind gut, stinging cells can catch prey, corals sessile and colonial, build upon calcium carbonate skeleton, flourish in clear, nutrient poor tropical waters, can grow rapidly because unicellular photosynthetic protists live endosymbiotically within their cells, corals release planula larvae or release sperm and eggs that become larvae, planula drift with current and settle on reef and develop into coral colony
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anthozoans - sea anemones
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widespread in warm and cold ocean waters, each has two diff polyps
primary polyp has lower portion anchored in bottom sediment and branched upper portion, projects above substratum; upper portion, primary polyp produces smaller secondary polyps by budding, some diff into feeding polyps and others circulate water through colony |
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scyphozoans
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jellyfish or medusa stage dominates complex life cycle, medusa produces sperm and eggs, use jet propulsion to move in water, use cnidocytes to capture prey, still not great at moving against currents, mesoglea thick and ferm, fertilized egg develops into small polyp, but then bud off small medusae
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filter feeding
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plankton in water = lots of food; filter feeding - internal= suck in water to catch food, external = use external filters, nets, or mucus to catch food, animal can be sessile
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sponges
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3 major clades, no body plan symmetry, no distinct cell layers, no distinct tissue or organs, asymmetrical, have hard elements called spicules, body plan of cells built around water canal system, water enters sponge through pores and passes through small canals where choanocytes capture food with collar, skeleton of simple or branching spicules, and complex network of elastic fibers support bodies of most sponges and have extracellular matrix
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sponges - glass sponges
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6 pointed silica spicules; greater flexibility and toughness than synthetic glass rods of similar length
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choanocytes
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flagellated, specialized feeding cells
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sponges - demosponges
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silicaceous spicules made of hydrated silicon dioxide, remarkable in having greater flexibility and toughness than synthetic glass rods of similar length, most diverse group
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sponges - calcareous sponges
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calcium carbonate spicules, more closely related to eumetazoa
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jet propulsion
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eject mass of fluid away from body to create thrust, fluid density increases, thrust increases, water can create 830 times thrust of air, any animal strong enough to create thrust in air would be too heavy for it to work, jet propelled animals only in water like scyphozoans
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acoelomate
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ex flatworms, lack enclosed fluid filled body cavity- space between gut and muscular body wall filled with cells called mesenchyme, move by beating cilia
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bilateria
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monophyletic group embracing animals other than sponges, ctenophores, cnidarians … traits that support it are bilateral symmetry, three cell layers, presence of at least 7 hox genes
Bilaterian have 2 categories : protostomes, deuterostomes |
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coelomate
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coelom develops within mesoderm, lined by peritoneum, which surrounds internal organs
• Has better control over movement of fluids in body in body cavity that pseudocoelomate animal does |
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detritivores
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actively feed on dead organic material
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deuterostome
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blastopore becomes the anus, radial cleavage, possibly ancestral (protostome possible derived)
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direct development
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no metamorphosis
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dispersal
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animals try to disperse themselves so animals do not die in same place it was born
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eumetazoans
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all other animals besides sponges = including bilaterians - have obvious body symmetry, a gut, a nervous system, special types of cell junctions, well organized tissues in distinct cell layers
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hydrostatic skeleton
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fxn of body cavities of animals; when muscles surrounding them contract, move to another part of cavity; if body tissues flexible around cavity, fluids squeezed out of one region cause another to expand and move specific body parts
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gastrovascular cavity
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functions in digestion, circulation, gas exchange, hydrostatic skeleton, in cnidarians, mouth connected to it (a blind sac) - incomplete gut, single opening is mouth and anus
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nematocyst
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in cnidarians, tentacles covered with specialized cells that containing stinging organelles called nematocysts, which inject toxins into their prey
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protostome
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mouth arises from blastopore, anus second, spiralian cleavage
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pseudocoelomate
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animals have body cavity, fluid filled space in which many internal organs suspended, pseudocoel enclosed by muscles only on outside, no inner layer of mesoderm surrounding internal organs
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anterior, posterior, dorsal, ventral, parasite, omnivore, herbivore, predator, trade off, larvae, life cycle
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get used to these words, could be filling it in on test
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trochophore
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many animals that live on seafloor has common larval form, trochophore; larvae feed in plankton before transforming into adults and settling; typical of annelids and mollusks, has and of cilia around center, part of complex life cycle
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feeding strategies
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filter feeders, herbivores, predators, parasites, detritivores
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multicellularity
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allows for specialized cells; specialized cells can be further specialized into tissues, tissues specialized into organs; cell size range in animals (Except eggs) less than cell size range in single celled organisms; organism size varies widely, requires developmental processes
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classic view of body cavity
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coelom derived; acoelomate -> pseudocoelomate -> coelomate; problems is that there are acoelomate and pseudo within coelomate lines; possibilities is that coelom ancestral character but has been lost many times or evolved several times; coelom looks ancestral for protostomes
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why is it difficult to determine where body cavity came from and whether ancestral or derived
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embryological info hard to get, coelom subject to selection, many species not sampled, branches of tree old, new species constantly being found
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cambrian explosion
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sudden diversification of animal body plans (5-10 my), major extant clades established along with extinct clades, marine only
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lophotrochozoans
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internal skeleton; typically have either lophophore (crest bearing feeding apparatus in adults) or trochophore (Wheel bearing larvae)
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lophophore
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a circular or u-shaped ridge around mouth that bears one or two rows of ciliated, hollow tentacles
• this complex structure is an organ for both food collection and gas exchange |
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ectoprocts - lophophore
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known as bryozoans (lace corals, moss animals); live in colonies, zoids in boxes, lophophore - cilia create current, help capture food; almost all marine, live in house made of material secreted by external body walls, some species differentially specialized and can rotate lophophore to increase contact with prey
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worms
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worm morphology maximizes SA/V, does not require skeleton, musclar hydrostats - muscles push and pulls against water and external environment, most common in dense environment (water, sediment, parasites)
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flatworms
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respire across surface, flat morphology maximizes sa/v, move by cilia on surface, parasitic and free living worms; lack specialized organs for transporting oxygen to internal tissues, lack of gas transport system dictates that each cell must be near body surface, digestive tract consists of mouth opening into blind sac - highly branched, intricate patterns, glide over surfaces through cilia, most internal parasites, absorb digestive food from digestive tracts of hosts, can cause schistosomiasis; free living flatworms common, distasteful or toxic (deter predators and bright warning colors)
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flukes
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in flatworm clade; schistosomiasis caused by flukes, complex life cycle, alternates between humanand snail host
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ribbon worms
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long thin worms, complete gut, predators (reversible proboscis, single tooth style on end, injects toxin on end, up to several meters long, have simple nervous and excretory systems similar to flatworms, but have complete gut, small ones move by beating cilia, larger ones have waves of muscle contractions, nearly all have rhynchocoel, which lies hollow muscular proboscis, armed with sharp stylets
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phronids
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feed with lophophore, live in chitin tubes, 20 species, sessile worms that live in muddy, sandy sediments, cilia drive water to top of lophophore, water exits through narrow spaces between tentacles, suspended food particles caught and transported to mouth by ciliary action
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ecdysozoan
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synapomorphy - exoskeleton that must be molted for growth - can be either flexible or stiff, cannot grow in size with animal
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molting
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shedding exoskeleton, • molting is trait that may have evolved only once during animal evolution
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exoskeleton
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-Encasement of body within rigid exoskeleton provides animal with support for walking in water or dry land and provides protection against predators
-nonliving covering secreted b y underlying epidermis |
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cuticle
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contains chitin, protects arthorpods, exoskeleton offers some protection but thin and flexible, allows exchange of gases, minerals, water across body surface, but restricts animal to moist habitats
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coelom : advantages
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hydrostatic skeleton (water incompressible, muscles can work against it), provides space or organ evolution, protects organs, disconnects organs from movement
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annelids
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segmented (helped drive development of circulatory system, specialization of segments), coelom, worm morphology, seta (bristles that stick out from segments, aid in locomotion); allows animal to move diff parts independent of each other, coelom in each segment isolated from those in another segment, separate nerve center called a ganglion controls each segment, thin permeable body for gas exchange
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how circular and longitudinal muscles help in movement
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circular muscles lengthen segment, longitudinal muscles shorten, setae provide traction
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annelids - polychaetes
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mostly marine, complex life cycle (trochophore larvae) and direct development, possibly paraphyletic, includes pognophorans; live in burrows/soft sediments; setae 1+ pairs tentacles, eyes
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annelids - clitellates
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terrestrial and freshwater, direct development, oligchaetes (Earthworms), leeches
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how annelids can feed
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filter feeding, deposite feeding (ingest sediment, extract, excrete sediment), parsites, predation, herbivory, endosymbiosis (Vent worms)
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feather duster worms
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polychaete, live in tubes, filter food from water with tentacles, can survive having head bitten off (Regenerate)
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lugworm
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deposit feeding example, polychaete, live head down in sediment, ingest sediment, leaving fecal castings at outside of burrow
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earthworms
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clitellate, oligochate, terrestrial, hermaphroditic, feed on decomposing plant material (valuable in farmland), disrupts ecosystems where introduced - destroy leaf litter, native species adapted to leaf litter and low nutrients)
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predation - blood worms
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annelid, polychaete, marine burrows in sediment, eversible proboscis - anchor for burrowing, poison glands in teeth (Serotonin and proteolytic enzymes), not bloodsuckers, have hemoglobin
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endosymbiosis: pognophorans
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deep sea vents - no light = no photosynthesis, primary production sulfide bacteria, lost gut, bacteria live in trophosome - provide food to worm, worm helps provide sulfide and o2, worm also absorbs dissolved organic carbon from sediment; burrowing worm with crown of tentacles where gas is exchanged, secrete tubes mad of chitin, which they live; coelom - anterior compartment where tentacles can be withdrawn and long subdiv cavity that extends length of body; posterior = segmented, take up disolved organic matter
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leeches
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clitellate, mostly freshwater, lost septa between segments, anterior and posterior suckers - posterior attaches to substrate, anterior attaches to host, suck fluid from host - secrete anticoagulant and anaesthetic; no parapodia/tentacles - coelomic space filled with undifferentiated tissue
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mollusks
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not segmented, has mantle (secretes cell, covers visceral mass), visceral mass (digestive, excretory, reproductive organs), foot (muscular, typically for locomotion), open circulatory system, gills for gas exchange, radula (rasping strxr) to scrape algae from rocks
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radula
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rasping tongue, rows of chitinous teeth in a band, extend over cartilagenous base, replace teeth from back, lose at front, modified in many groups
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chitons
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marine, foot (Grip rock, locomotion - muscular hydrostat), herbivores, scrape algae from rocks with radula, iron in teeth, bilaterally symmetrical, multiple gills and shell plates
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bivalves
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2 shells (valves) with hinge, foot typically for burrowing (muscular hydrostate, extend into sediment, use as anchor, pull body down, extend siphons out), usually sedentary, decephalized (lost their brains), filter feeders
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bivalve feeding
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gills (Respiration, feeding), incurrent and excurrent siphons, particulate matter filtered through gills, sorted, food passed to mouth
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scallops -
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eye spots on tentacles (modified mantle), swim using jet propulsion - close shell quickly
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gastropods
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torsion - rear end of basic body plan rotated around center, puts gills and anus near head, diverse - marine freshwater, terrestrial
glide on muscular foot - foot swimming organ for some, morphologically diverse - abalones, limpets, snails, sea slugs predators, herbivores, filter feeders |
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gastropods - abolone
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herbivores- use radula to scrape algae, external fertilization of eggs (must be close together), overfishing and disease - density too low to reproduce, white abalone - endangered, red abalone - farmed
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gastropod - cone snail
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radula modified, pierce prey with poison tooth, inject with toxin to paralyze prey
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gastropods - nudibranchs
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nudibranch - "naked gill", lost shell, undergone "de-torsion" - still see torsion in development
defenses - aposematic coloration- worm protection of toxicity (some can eat nematocysts of cnidarians, put them in skin intact for defense, distasteful) cryptic |
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cephalopods
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shell reduced (Except nautilus), foot-tentacles, locomotion - siphon used for jet propulsion, highly cephalized (smartest nonvertebrates), highly developed eyes, control color for crypsis and display, capture prey through tentacles, also serve for movement, head associated with large branched foot that bears tentacles and siphon, mantle large - provide solid external supopr structure and contain gills
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cephalopods : feeding
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highly cephalized, predators - suckers on tentacles grasp prey, beak tears prey into pices, octopus - inject prey with poison then consume
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ecdysozoans
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horsehair worms, nematodes, onychophorans (velvet worms), arthropods
synapomorphy - exoskeleton must be molted for growth, can be either flexible or stiff but cannot grow in size with animal animal grow within exoskeleton, then molt |
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horsehair worms
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thin worm covered by tough flexible cuticle; no mouth opening, gut reduced; adults free living (non feeding, find mates and lay eggs), larvae - seek host after hatching, parasites on invertebrates, absorb nutrients from host through skin
host manipulation - not typical of group, non-infected grasshopper will not jump in water, but infected grasshoppers affected by brain thru worm, jump in water and drown, adult worm emerges and swims away |
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nematodes
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ecdyszoans
very common in soil and as parasites, thin worm covered by tough flexible cuticle, complete gut, gives unsegmented body its shape exchange oxygen, nutrients through cuticle and gut, pharynx = contracting muscular organ move material through gut, contract thru longitudinal muscles caenorhabditis elegans = model organism |
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nematode - C elegans
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model organism, small (959 cells), 4 day generation time, clear- can follow cells visually, can freeze and rethaw live, common soil nematode, 1st animal to have genome sequenced
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onychophorans
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velvet worms; may resemble common ancestor to arthropods, only 150 species, terrestrial, soft cuticle, feed by immobilizing prey with mucus, soft, fleshy, unjointed claw bearing legs; used fluid filled body cavities as hydrostatic skeletons, fertilize internally, large yolky eggs brooded on body of female
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arthropods
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species-scape: size proportion to # species in group; most common life form, segmented bodies, rigid exoskeleton (muscles attach to and pull against exo, provides support, prevents dessication, protection from predators, must molt to grow), compound eyes, 1st to transition to land 400 mya; has muscles that operate segment and jointed appendage, exo responsible fo rterrestrial conquering, chitin keeps from dessication
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other traits in terrestrial groups
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no planktonic larvae, air breathing (book lungs!)
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arhtropods - crustaceans
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few terrestrial, has 3 parts - head, thorax, abdomen, head contains 5 fused segments (1 pair of legs modified for feeding), other legs modified for feeding, respiration, locomotion, sensory function, brooding eggs; decapods that include shrimp, lobster crab; 5 pairs of thoracic legs, includes legs modified for claws, 3 other paired appendages modified for feeding on head (maxillipeds)
has carapace, fertilization - fert eggs attached to outside of female's body |
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arthropods - myriapods
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centipedes, milliepedes, long with many segments - centipedes = 1 leg/seg millipedes 2 legs/seg, many poisonous varieties
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chelicerates
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head + trunk; includes spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs, 8 legs, 2 addiional pairs of appendages modified into mouth parts on head
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chelicerates - spiders
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most speciose group, terrestrial, wide range of habitates, many have web spinning ability
-silk : produced in spinneret glands (usually 3 pairs, located at end of abdomen), liquid in gland, becomes solid after leaving gland, different silks can be produced by different spinneret glands(can fine tune building process), other arthropodsd have evolved silk some have good vision |
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chelicerates - scorpions
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body divided into cephalothorax and abdomen, stinger on tail, females brood young, carry hatched young on back, common in desserts (will glow under uv light)
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hexapods characters
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terrestrial (Freshwater larvae), 3 pairs of walking legs, body divided into head, abdomen, thorax, breath through tracheae (channels that lead from body surface to interior, system of directed sacs, tubular channels that extend from spiracles inward to tissues throughout body), complex life cycle common (larvae do not disperse, adults do); single pair of antennae on head, no appendages on abdomen - all on thorax
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insects - success traits
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colonized land early, evolved into many eco roles, speciation driven by (lower dispersal on land, short gen times, high fecundity, coevolution with plants (pollinators, herbivores), co-evolution with predators
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metamophosis types
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complete metamorphosis (holometabolous) (hatching, molting, molting, pupation, metamorphosis); incomplete metamorphosis (hemimetabolous) - hatching, molting til metamorphosis
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flight of insects
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insects first to evolve it, evolved from modification of gill like part of leg segment; modification of developmental gene led to wings development (did not need new genes or structures)
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pollination
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insects highly co-evolved with plants --plants get to have sex and outbreed, insects feed on pollen and nectar; specialists - pollinator only visits few species or types of plant; generalists - visit many species; may help drive high speciation rate for insects
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beetles: coleoptera
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most speciose group, forewings hardened into coverings (protect wings when not in flight, like burrowing), evolution and diversification follows flowering plants--when plants diversified, so did they, holometabolous
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butterfiles and moths: lepidoptera
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wings have scales, wing color - pigment, refraction of light, holometabolous, diverse feeding - many species specialized to suck nectar
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ants bees wasps :hymenoptera
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holometabolous, 2 pairs of wings that are linked, important pollinators of crops (bees), eusociality
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eusociality
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group of related invidivuals; sterile individuals help grou - no individual fitness, higher inclusive fitness by helping relative reproduce - genes survive through relatives, ants and bees - sterile workers related to reproductive queen
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deuterostomes
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gastrulation - blastopore becomes anus, radial cleavage; pharyngeal gill slits (Water enters mouth, exits through slits), bilateral symmetry, include echinoderms, urochordates, vertebrates (ray finned fishes, amphibians, reptiles, mammals)
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characters of echinoderms
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radial symmetry (evolved from bilateral ancestor), skeleton (internal plates, catch connective tissue that stiffens under neural control), loss of pharyngeal gill slits, water vascular system - water filled canals runs throughout body, gas exchange, circulation of waste and nutrients, hydraulics - tube feet, locomotion and feeding), tube feet use suction and chemical adhesives to stick
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sea stars - feeding
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predators, evert digestive tissue out mouth, dissolve food externally and absorb, crown of thorns sea star - great barrier reef, eats coral tissue, leaves skeleton; digestive organs and gonads in arms, tube feet = locomotion, gas exchange, attachment, each tube foot has internal ampulla, connected by muscular tube to external suction cup that can stick to substratum, moves thru long/circ muscles, extension of water filled canals
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urchins
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herbivores, five part jaws scrape and bite algae, capable of cleaning all algae from area to create urchin barrens, can eliminate kelp forests; hemispherical, no arms, covered spines connected to skeleton thru ball and socket joints, spines can be moved so that they can converge toward point that has been touched, some produce toxic substances
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sea cucumbers feeding
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use oral tentacles to capture food - sediment, plankton, scavenging, breathe through anus (Respiratory tree near end of gut), will expel portion of internal organs when threatened, lack arms, mouth anterior, anus posterior (not oral/aboral), use tube feet to attach to substratum
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chordates :
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notochord (flexible rod that runs length of body, derived from mesoderm, provides support), dorsal, hollow nerve cord, tail extends beyond anus; ancestral pharyngeal slits, functions as site for o2 uptake and elimination of h20 and co2
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urochordates : tunicates
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resemble ancestral chordate in larval form, settle and become sessile adults, filter feed - pharyngeal basket modified to capture food; tough tunic encloses adult ascidian, baglike body; tunic composed of protein and complex polysaccharide secreted by epidermal cells; pharyngeal basket filters prey from water passing through it
larvae has dorsal, hollow nerve cord and notochord that is restricted to tail region; stay in plankton as larvae, then become sessile adults |
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vertebrates :
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chordate; vertebral column - replaces notochord, anterior skull, brain, ventral heart
rigid internal skeleton supported by vertebral column anterior skull with large brain internal organs suspended in coelom well developed circ system, driven by contractions of ventral heart exemplified in bony fish |
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jaws.. evolution
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anterior cartilagenous gill arches modified to become jaws; replaced by bone, posterior arches - contribute to larynx and trachea in air breathing vertebrates
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chondrichthyans
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sharks, skates, rays; skeleton made of cartilage, gill slits, mostly predators, some have scales, make it like sandpaper, sharks move thru lateral undulation and caudal tail fins, skates and rays have vertical undulating movements of enlarged pectoral fins
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ray finned fishes: actinppterygians
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largest group of extant fishes, calcified bony internal skeleton, scales that provide some protection and enhance movement through water, operculum rather than gill slit - gills open into single chamber covered by hard flap (operculum) - op improves flow of water over gills, improve gas exchange , lateral line - detects water motion, enables coordination of schooling, swim bladder - gas filled, controls buoyancy, subgroup teleosts - jaw elements mobile = diverse feeding, like suction; eggs tend to sink so fish move to food rich shallow waters to lay eggs
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transition to land
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breathe air, skeletal support in air, desiccation resistance - adults, eggs
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amphibians
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salamanders, frogs, toads,
moist environment, bony skeleton provides support, easily desiccate, adults breathe air across skin/lungs, some entirely aquatic, most have aquatic eggs, some aquatic larvae like tadpole, amphibian have been declining - due to either habitat loss, uv radiation, pollution, chytrid fungus; eggs enclosed with delicate membranous envelopes that cannot prevent water loss in dry conditions, large numbers of eggs, abandon once fertilized and species specific calls |
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amniote egg
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in line that led to reptiles, birds, mammals - shell and membranes protect embryo from desiccation, ut permits gas exchange, yolk provides nutrients; impermeable to water and allows embryo to grow in aqueous environment, also allows excretion of waste nitrogen
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reptiles
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includes turtles, squamates (snakes, lizards), crocodilians, birds; skin resists desiccation, amniote egg, large diverse group
birds = living dinosaur |
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mammals
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synapomorphies - sweat glands (cool animals), mammary glands (secrete nutritive fluid/milk on which newborns feed), hair (gives protection and insulation covering), 4 chambered heart; fert in female's body
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prototherians
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platypus and echidnas - do not have nipples, give milk, and offspring lap it off them
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therians
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marsupials, post birth develop in pouch, gestation brief, mother ejects milk until offspring can suckle, once young leaves uterus it is sexually receptive
eutherians - longer development in uterus with placenta |
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evolution of flight
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convergent - evolved 3 times; pterosarus (Extinct archosaur)
birds - living dino bats - living mammals - forelimbs evolved into wing |
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endothermy
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maintain constant body temp, advantage - faster enzymatic reactions, optimize reactions for narrower body temp range; disadvantage - energetically expensive, convergent - evolved twice (at least) - birds, mammals, others
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isometry vs allometry
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isometry - as an organism mass increases or decreases - the shape or process does not change
(if volume scales isometrically, then scaling factor = 3, SA =2) allometry - as an organism increases or decreases, shape or process does change -this means: elephants eat absolutely more than mice but eat relatively less, per pound of body mass than mice see slides for more explanation |
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global circulation sunlight
heated air rises |
sunlight hits equator at more direct angle, heats air at equator
hot air rises and cools near equator at intertropical convergence zone, air cools and increases in density as it rises, water condenses, causes rain cold dense, dry air descends |
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circulation cells
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hot air rises at ITCZ, loses moisture
at night altitude, travels north and south, cold dry air sinks at 30 degrees, reverse pattern at poles |
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earth's rotation
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speed highest at equator, lowest at poles (550mph at 60 degrees, 1100mph at equator)
coriolis effect - deflects objects and fluids moving over earth's surface, to right in northern, left in souther pole = slower rotation |
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global ocean circulation
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patterns set by winds and coriolis effect, equatorial waters move up east coasts, cold polar waters move down west coasts
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upwelling
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upwelling - cold nutrient rich water comes to ocean surface from depth, driven by winds and coriolis effect, upwelling systems 1% of ocean, but support 50% of fisheries, large kelp forests in upwelling areas - eastern margins of oceans
physical factors - winds blow from poles along western coastlines, winds drives surface water currents through friction, coriolis effect deflects surface water away from coastline, cold nutrient rich water comes from depth to replace it |
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phytoplankton remove nutrients from surface water
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take up nutrients from surface water, making water nutrient depleted, eventually nutrients end up in deeper water
winds from pole drive surface water offshore, cold nutrient rich water comes up from depth |
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carbon cycle
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carbon fixed thru photosynthesis (5% of sunlight used), after fixation - passed along food chain, released as co2 through metabolism (Respiration), released as co2 through decay and excretion, sequestered as dead organic matter in soils and sediments
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global net primary productivity
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gross primary productivity = amount fixed by primary producers
net pp = gpp - energy used by primary producer for metabolism only npp can be passed along into ecosystem only npp can be sequestered |
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net primary production
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boreal forests have high seasonal rates, equator has high, year round NPP, deserts = low npp, oceans = low npp (less variable than land and over large area)
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flow of energy through ecosystem
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energy = large organic molecules, transfer inefficient, most energy used for metabolism, most carbon fixed, return to atmosphere through metabolism
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global flows of carbon
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human inputs much more than natural, they are net increase
greenhouse effect, atmospheric co2 increasing, global temp increasing |
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climate change impacts
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loss of sea ice and polar habitats, sea levels rise (impact coastal ecosystems), change in flowering times of plants and breeding of animals, may disrupt ecosystems, shifts of species range - ex red fox went north, competes w/ arctic fox, increase in rain and high latitudes and decrease at low latitudes, changes in disease outbreak patterns
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eutrophication
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increased fertilizer use, increase amount of nutrients in water runoff from farmland, nutrients enter rivers and coastal areas, nutrients cause massive blooms of algae and phytoplankton
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how the ocean is with low nutrients (normal
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low phytoplankton, low respiration, low decomp, light reaches bottom, high oxygen levels
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high nutrients in ocean (eutrophication)
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high phytoplank, high respiration, high decomp, no light at bottom, macroalgae die, mobile animals leave or die, low oxygen, dead zone
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dead zones
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vegetation and other bottom biota killed off, linked to fertilizer use, hypoxia and anoxia (low or no oxygen), more than 200 dead zones world wide
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population size
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depends on immigration, emigration, birth, death
n1= n0 + I +B - E-D |
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what happens when resources abundant?
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population grows exponentially, mortality rates not effected by pop density - enough resources for everyone; pop density = # individuals/unit area, density independent mortality (mortality always at a constant percentage)
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(r)
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express same idea combining b, d, e, i in one term = r
r= intrinsic rate of increase = difference between processes that increase populations (b, i) and decrease it (d, e) -per capita rate, maximum value = 1, minimum = -1 positive value, pop grows neg value, pop declines |
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exponential growth in population
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when resources not limiting, when predation or disease does not limit pop (dN/dt = rN)
change in pop size over time = intrinsic growth rate times pop size r pos then pop grows exponentially without bound, larger r, faster growth |
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resource limitation
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in reality, population are limited by amount of resources; pop size will grow until resources become limited so that only set number of ind can survive; as pop size grows, mortality will increase as resources become scarce (Density dependent mortality)
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logistic growth in population
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point at which resources become limiting is carrying capacity k, can add to exponential growth equation;
when population size is below carryin capacity (N < K), population grows, if N << K , can behave like density independent mortality, as N nears K, population growth slows when pop size at carrying capacity, pop will not grow if pop over carrying capacity - n>k pop declines toward carrying capacity |
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carrying capacity (K)
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can be any resource (light food, etc);
problems in determining K- can fluctuate in time and space, factors may interact to limit growth, interactions with other species |
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life history strategies -
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significant features of an organism's life cycle, especially those related to survival and reproduction
example: producing millions of fert eggs or raising few offspring |
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life history trade offs
(inc def of trade off) |
trade off - gain in one trait means loss in another
common life history trade offs -fast growth vs long life; # of offspring survival of offspring reflected in logistic growth and survivorship - r and K selection |
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r selection
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high per capita population growth (high r); don't compete well for resources with other species, good dispersal abilities - can colonize new areas quickly; many have one round of reproduction before they die like weeds, insects
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k selection
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low per capita pop growth (low r), compete well for resources, can crowd out r selected species, slow repro rate, many multiple rounds of repro before they die like large mammals, large trees
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survivorship
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measures how mortality changes over lifetime of organism; examine cohorts - group of individuals born at certain time; follow cohorts from birth til death, record % surviving at each time interval; determine characteristic survival curve for species, at any stage high survivorship = low mortality and vice versa
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types of survivorship
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type 1 - low mortality until older ages - large mammals
type 2 - mortality rate constant - some bird species type 3 - high mortality at early age - insects, marine invertebrate |
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reproductive strategies
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part of life history strategies; asexual vs sexual repro - reproduce one and die or reproduce multiple times, separate sexes or hermaphroditism
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simultaneous hermaphrodites
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fxnal male and female repro organs in one individuals at same time; either exchange gametes with another hermaphrodite or self fertilize (species specific), great grey garden slugs, exchange sperm through male sex organ
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sequential hermaphrodites
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change sex over course of life time; protogyny - female first, then male (more common pattern of two types)
protandry - male first, then female, uncommon |
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california sheepshead
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protogynous, females- can reproduce at any size; one large males can monopolize many females, very high reproductive success
small males have low reproductive success, large males prevent them from mating; maximize repro success by being female when young then switching to male at large size |
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anemone (clown) fish
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protandrous, live in groups on anemone; largest fish = repro female, next largest = repro male
all others = non repro if female dies, male turns female, largest non repro fish becomes male |
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appendages
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extensions of body that can be manipulated by muscles
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proboscis
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feeding organ of worm (ribbon worm)
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setae
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stiff bristles protrude each parapodium (in annelids); forge temp attachment to substratum, prevent animal from slipping backward
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oligochaetes
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no eyes or anterior tentacles, few setae (earthworms - hermaphroditic, simultaneous)
eggs layed in cocoon outside adult's body |
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trophosome
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in pognophorans, specialized organ where endosymbiotic bacteria live, dissolve organic matter
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hemocoel
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mollusks--fluids move around animal and deliver oxygen to internal organs, then reenter open system
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carapace -
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crustaceans -
fold of exoskeleton extends dorsally and laterally back of head to cover and protect |
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incurrent siphon
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feed by taking in water through it (opening)
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excurrent siphon -
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water and gametes exit
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horseshoe crabs
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horseshoe shaped covering over most of body, in shallow water where they scavenge and prey on bottom dwelling animals;
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arachnids
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simple - mini adults hatch from internally fert eggs, begin independently
-scorpions, mites, ticks, spiders |
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crinoids
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sea lillies, feather stars - attach to substratum through flexible stalk consisting stack of calcaeous disks
main body = cup shaped structure with tubular digestive system |
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extra embryonic membranes in amniote eggs
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protect embryo from desiccation, assist in gas exchange and excretion of waste nitrogen
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yolk
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large amount of food, permit embryo to be advanced before it hatches
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consumption
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herbivory or predation
trophic levels of consumers primary consumers = herbivores secondary = predators, eat herbivors and so on... ; form food chains and webs |
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food chains and webs
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show pattern of consumption, arrows indicate direction of energy flow; food chain = simple form of web, one group at each level of consumer and primary producer
food web - more complex, multiple groups at each level, consumer may be greater than primary level |
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bob paine's observation with sea stars and muscles in WA
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bom pain observed that ca mussels form dense beds on rocky shores in WA, ochre sea star pisaster forrages in area below mussel beds so do they prevent muscle beds from forming in low intertidal areas?
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rocky shore intertidal - characteristics
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as you increase height on shore, increasing desiccation, increasing heat/cold, decreasing feeding time
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paine's hypothesis and result
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pisaster's predation prevents mussel beds from forming low on shore, so then he removed pisaster from entire section of shore, and so then mussel bed expands down into lower shore, moves into midzone
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parasitism
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parasites smaller than hose, may live in or on host, may kill host but don't eat all of host, includes diseases
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competition
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organism uses same resources, occurs between individuals of two separate species
between individuals of same species, causes density dependent mortality of logistic growth model |
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connell's observation / result conclusion for 2nd hypothesis
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observation: chtalmalus and banalus live in distinct zones - chtamalus lives higher, balanus lower
result - balanus in high areas died from desiccation, chtamalus in low plots without balanus survived well; thus balanus keep out of high areas by desiccation but physical factors do not keep chthamalus out of low |
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connell's multiple hypothesis
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1) chthalamus settles high on shore, balanus only settles low (wrong, can settle in both zones)
2) chthamalus that settle in low zone, and balanus that settle in high zone die from physical factors (test - observed isolated balanus in high zone died, experiment in low: plots where balanus are removed) 3) balanus outcompetes and kills chthamalus in low zone => plots balanus and chthamalus in low zone, ends up that balanus outcompetes for space through crushing, lifting, smothering |
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competitive exclusion with barnacles
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balanus competitively excludes chthamalus from low areas; chthamalus escapes copetition and survives in high areas where physical condition kill balanus, competition, not just physical conditions can determine distribution
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mutualism
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both organisms benefit
-plant - pollinator - coral-zooxanthellae -pognophoran-sulfur bacteria -coral crab and corals (great barrier rief, crab receives shelter and corals receive defense from crown of thorns sea star) |
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commensalism- anemone fish
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anemone fish benefits - anemone nematocysts do not fire and harm fish, fish receives protection from predators, fish cannot survive without anemone
=anemone, no effect, can survive well without fish |
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amensalism (mud bottoms)
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muddy marine areas with fine sediment grain size; deposit feeders (lugworm) - survive equally well in presence or absence of bivalve filter feeders
-bivalve filter feeders - die or don't grow in presence of deposit feeders; deposit feeder stir up fine sediments that clogs bivalve gills -bivalve - negative, deposite feeders - no effect |
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gradient of interactions
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can be difficult to tell exact relationship, hard to measure costs and benefits
costs and benefits may change - environmental conditions, organism condition gradient - amensalism (-/0), parasitism (+/-), commensalism (+/0), mutalism (+/+) |
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trophic cascade
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cascade of effects down food chain; lower trophic levels indirectly effected by higher levels; otter - sea urchins - kelp (otters exert top down control, eat sea urchins, so then promote kelp growth)
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keystone organism
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organism that has large effect but not a large abundance; typically predators (pisasters, sea otters), ecosystem engineers (alter structure of habitat like beavers that eat and use trees, create ponds and meadows with dams)
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disturbance
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physical event that causes death or dislodgement of organisms
-caused by many things (hot or cold snap, hurricane, fire, tsunami) variation in intensity, frequency, size of area disturbed |
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succession
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after disturbance, species recolonize area in specific sequence, observed after glacial retreat, volcano eruptions, fires, intertidal boulders - flip after strong waves hit them, species recolonize in sequence
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successional sequences of boulders
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found that small boulders - overturned by small waves, small waves frequent
big boulderse - overturned by big waves- rare found that on small boulders, mostly empty, on large boulders, most had gigartina (which shows succession of empty to barnacles to green to red algae to gigartina) |
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sousa's hypotheses
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hyp 1: diff species colonize or survive on diff boulder sizes
hyp 2: disturbance caused by waves, correlated with boulder size experiment: glue small boulders down to prevent flipping |
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results of sousa's exp
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over two years, found that small boulders flip often, early successional species - barnacles, green algae
medium boulders - recently flipped, like small boulders; lower frequency of disturbance allows mid successional species to establish large boulders - rarely flipped, late successional, competitve dominants (gigartina) medium = highest species diversity |
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intermediate disturbance hypothesis
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diversity highest in area with intermediate levels of disturbance
low disturbance = dom by late successional species intermediate disturbance = mix of succ stages high disturbance = only early species establish before next disturbance occurs |
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biomass
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weight of living matter
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interference competition
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interfering with species' activities, reducing ability of others to access resources
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exploitation competition
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reducing available resources by reducing ability of others to access resources
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intraspecific competition
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competition among individuals of smae species - result in reduced growth and reproductive rates for some individuals, etc
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interspecific competition
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competition among individuals of diff species, affects individuals same way as intraspecific, but then superior competitor can prevent all members of another species from using habitat = competitive exclusion
ex barnacles |
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conservation biology
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scientific study of phenomena that affect the maintenance, loss, and restoration of biological diversity; covers many disciplines, ranges from basic science to applied science
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components of diversity
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species richness = number of different species
species evenness = relative abundances among species |
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biodiversity impacts and changes
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pollution - rapidly increasing, high impact on temperate grasslands, rivers, and coastal areas
climate change - rapidly increasing, high impact on polar areas, other biomes had low-moderate impacts habitat change = greatest impact; rivers and marine coastal areas impacted by pollution, habitat destruction, invasive species had high impact on island biomes, overexploitation has high impact on marine ecosystems |
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extinction of species
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causes are same as those for biodiversity impacts; endangered species act - 1973 - endangered= danger of extinction throughout all or significant portion of its range
threatened = likely to become endangered in the foreseeable |
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habitat vs species
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shifts to protecting habitats, not just species; species require habitat to survive, conserving habitat will also conserve little known, little studied species, will conserve ecosystem services
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habitat alteration (loss, fragmentation)
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habitat loss - example - conversion of farmland to city
habitat fragmentation - larger habitat reduced in size or fragmented into smaller sizes; fewer species can survive in habitat; fragmentation and loss can reduce habitat to area lower than support all species |
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habitat loss - edge effects
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habitat edges are different physically and biologically from interior; as habitat size decreases, relative amount of edge to interior area increases
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habitat loss - territory size
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larger animals may need larger amounts of space - foraging area, territory; more severely impacted by habitat fragmentation; increased risk of human encounters; mountain lion - male territory size 25-30 sq mi, female territory size 15-30 sq mi
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climate change and corals
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high water temperatures becoming major cause of coral bleaching and death; coral bleaching - coral lose zooxanthellae, can recover from minor episodes, if severe, widespread and prolonged, coral will die
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hoegh guldburg - measuring bleaching
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worked with other researchers to track sea surface temp and bleaching - long periods of high temp preceded bleaching events
degree heating month - degrees above threshold for bleaching time, higher above threshold - quicker bleaching occurs; |
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bleaching causes
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high temp - becoming more imp with climate change; reduced salinity, toxins - eg cyanide, microbial infections, reduced temp, all cause physiological stress
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invasive species
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also called introduced, alien, exotic, nonindigenous, plus others; brought in area where it doesn't normally occur through human activity - intentional - crops, pets unintentional - shipping, accidental release
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nuisance species actions
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predators on native/commercial spp., outcompete natives for resources, alter habitat, introduced diseases, human and animal, foul/infest human structures
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pollution - two types
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nutrient loading - naturally occurring chemicals but alteration in amounts, nitrogen, phosphorous; toxins - directly poison animals, endocrine disrupters (hormone disrupters)- mimic naturally occurring hormones, disrupt growth, reproduction, sexual development, behavior
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endocrine disrupter : ddt
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pesticide - used to control mosquitoes and other insects; produced locally by montrose 1940-1970 dumped 1800 tons into la sewers; still used in countries with malaria outbreaks; effects - accumulates in body fat, bioaccumulates - concentration in tissues increases up food chain, thinning of egg shells, linked to declines in bald eagles, ospreys, pelicans, other marine/aquatic feeders, recoveries linked to end of ddt use
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santa cruz island : case study- foxes
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channel islands fox - endemic species found on only 6/8 ca channel islands, pop high until 1990s then fell drastically
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santa cruz island - bald eagles
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historically lived and nested on island; disappeared in 1960 in response to ddt; eat fish, fox populations stayed high without bald eagles
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santa cruz island - feral pig
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introduced species; pigs brought in by farmers, established feral population, foxes don't eat them, pigs don't eat what foxes eat, coexisted with foxes for many years w/o obvious effect but negative effect on native plants
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sci: golden eagle
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populations increased in 1990s, preyed on young channel island fox; attempts to trap and remove unsuccessful
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sci: interacting effects
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loss of bald eagle - golden eagle had no competition for nesting site
presence of golden eagle prevented re-establishment of bald eagle feral pigs - provided food source for golden eagle; fox population alone not enough to sustain golden eagles |
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sci : restoration
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needed ecosystem appraoch: get rid of feral pigs (trapped and hunted) - removes golden eagle primary food source
remove golden eagles ; reintroduce bald eagle (help prevent re-introduction of golden by holding its own nest sites), breeding program for foxes, other restoration programs for native plants, removal of sheep |
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ecosystem services
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...see rest of slides..
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canine distemper virus
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introduced by domesticated dogs to island, fatal to foxes, vaccinating foxes in breeding programs, dogs prohibited from restoration areas
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ecosystem services
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supporting (nutrient cycling, soil formation, primary production)
provisioning (food, fresh water, wood and fiber, natural products) regulating (climate regulation, flood regulation, disease regulation, water paurification) cultural (aesthetic, spiritual, educational) |
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ecosystem services - nursery grounds
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commercially important fish - juveniles frequently use diff habitat than adults - nursery ground = food, protection from predators
offshore fisheries depend on nursery grounds for supply of adults mangroves, estuaries, seagrass beds |
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ecosystem services - medicine
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50% come from bio sources
many result from ecological interactions - plants produce chemicals to deter herbivory, many nat pharmaceuticals undiscovered, natural ecosystems ongoing R&D lab for new drugs |
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ethology
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puts behavior in evolutionary context
adaptive behavior - increases fitness compared to other behaviors maladaptive behavior decreases fitness, so ad behav favored by evolution |
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proximate vs ultimate causes of behavior
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proximate causes - causes behavior to occur within lifetime of individual (result of ultimate/evolutionary causes)
ultimate causes - selection pressures that shaped its evolution and continue its maintenance |
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example, birds singing?
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songbird males sing during breeding season
proximate - testosterone causes development of brain regions that control singing, birds learn regional songs from parents and neighbors ultimate reasons - males that sing have greater reproductive success than males that do not sing, signals to other males territory is occupied, also includes reason why behavior evolved over other behaviors or why females choose certain males on basis of song |
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genes and environment - def + methods
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behaviors shaped by genes and environment, genes do not encode behavior but provide phys basis
methods - deprivation - isolate orgnaims from potential environmental cues selective breeding - domesticated animals, selection experiments in fruitflies interbreeding and hybridization - between population and closely related species gene knockouts - silence gene expression |
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deprivation- songbirds
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male songbirds sing distinctive regional songs - parents sing around chicks
hypothesis :songs not gen determined, learned from parents experiment - deprivation and compare to control group song is learned, product of both genes and environment |
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interbreeding - western grass spider
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superfluous killing - killing prey but don't eat or only partially eat, occurs in many animal taxa
theories - occur in high food environments where prey can be abandoned if not nutritious enough (org from low food environments not exhibit behavior) -result of predatory aggression selected for low food environments - attach everything of food is scarce |
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info about western grass spiders
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funnel webs, attack prey and bring back to web, wrap in silk, inhbit deserts - high prey areas (desert) low prey areas = riverbank
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experiment with wgs
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hypothesis - aggressive predatory behavior favored in low food environments, leads to superfluous killing when food abundant
test - offer abundant prey to both species, record desert spiders had more superfluous killing |
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next experiment with wgs + where is gene for aggressiveness carried on?
|
hypothesis - low prey environments select for genetic component to aggression, leads to superfluous killing when prey abundant
test - hybridize spiders from low prey pop with high prey areas if genetic component, sons of mothers from high prey areas will exhibit low rates of superfluous killing (ended up being true) ans. x chromosome |
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groups - costs and benefits
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cost - competition for resources with other individuals, aggregations may be associated with need to use common resource, not a true social group
benefits - prey, predator, kin (fish schools = prey like anchhovetta, reduce per capita risk of predation, predator detection, predator confusion - movement of many prey confuse predator predators - tuna schools, bonito and yellowfish = coordinate attacks with prey |
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peusociality in hymenoptera
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workers sterile - fitness through raising relatives
evolved multiple time (hapldiploid mating system - men 1N, female 2N daughters relatedness is .75, favors cooperative behavior) ant supercolonies - level of organization above colony, adjacent colonies related and cooperative, colonies produce reproductive males or females, mated female returns to colony - killed or made queen |
