Literature Terms

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Allegory

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Where every aspect of a story is representative, usually symbolic, of something else, usually a larger abstract concept or important historical/geopolitical event.

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Alliteration

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The repetition of consonant sounds within close proximity, usually in consecutive words within the same sentence or line.

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Blank verse

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Non-rhyming poetry, usually written in iambic pentameter.

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Literary devices

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refers to specific aspects of literature, in the sense of its universal function as an art form which expresses ideas through language, which we can recognize, identify, interpret and/or analyze. Literary devices collectively comprise the art form’s components; the means by which authors create meaning through language, and by which readers gain understanding of and appreciation for their works. They also provide a conceptual framework for comparing individual literary works to others, both within and across genres. Both literary elements and literary techniques can rightly be called literary devices.

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Literary elements

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refers to particular identifiable characteristics of a whole text. They are not “used,” per se, by authors; they represent the elements of storytelling which are common to all literary and narrative forms. For example, every story has a theme, every story has a setting, every story has a conflict, every story is written from a particular point-of-view, etc. In order to be discussed legitimately as part of a textual analysis, literary elements must be specifically identified for that particular text.

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Literary techniques

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refers to any specific, deliberate constructions or choices of language which an author uses to convey meaning in a particular way. An author’s use of a literary technique usually occurs with a single word or phrase, or a particular group of words or phrases, at one single point in a text. Unlike literary elements, literary techniques are not necessarily present in every text; they represent deliberate, conscious choices by individual authors.

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Literary terms

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refers to the words themselves with which we identify and designate literary elements and techniques. They are not found in literature and they are not “used” by authors.

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Antagonist

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Counterpart to the main character and source of a story’s main conflict. The person may not be “bad” or “evil” by any conventional moral standard, but he/she opposes the protagonist in a significant way. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself.)

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Anthropomorphism

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Where animals or inanimate objects are portrayed in a story as people, such as by walking, talking, or being given arms, legs, facial features, human locomotion or other anthropoid form. (This technique is often incorrectly called personification.)

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Character

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The people who inhabit and take part in a story. When discussing character, as distinct from characterization, look to the essential function of the character, or of all the characters as a group, in the story as a whole.

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Characterization

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The author’s means of conveying to the reader a character’s personality, life history, values, physical attributes, etc. Also refers directly to a description thereof.

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Climax

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The turning point in a story, at which the end result becomes inevitable, usually where something suddenly goes terribly wrong; the “dramatic high point” of a story. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of structure; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself.)

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Conflict

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A struggle between opposing forces which is the driving force of a story. The outcome of any story provides a resolution of the conflict(s); this is what keeps the reader reading. Conflicts can exist between individual characters, between groups of characters, between a character and society, etc., and can also be purely abstract (i.e., conflicting ideas).

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Context

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Conditions, including facts, social/historical background, time and place, etc., surrounding a given situation.

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Creative license

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Exaggeration or alteration of objective facts or reality, for the purpose of enhancing meaning in a fictional context.

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Dialogue

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Where characters speak to one another; may often be used to substitute for exposition.

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Dramatic irony

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Where the audience or reader is aware of something important, of which the characters in the story are not aware.

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Exposition

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Where an author interrupts a story in order to explain something, usually to provide important background information.

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Figurative language

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Any use of language where the intended meaning differs from the actual literal meaning of the words themselves. There are many techniques which can rightly be called figurative language, including metaphor, simile, hyperbole, personification, onomatopoeia, verbal irony, and oxymoron. (Related: figure of speech)

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Foil

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A character who is meant to represent characteristics, values, ideas, etc. which are directly and diametrically opposed to those of another character, usually the protagonist. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself.)

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Foreshadowing

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Where future events in a story, or perhaps the outcome, are suggested by the author before they happen. Foreshadowing can take many forms and be accomplished in many ways, with varying degrees of subtlety. However, if the outcome is deliberately and explicitly revealed early in a story (such as by the use of a narrator or flashback structure), such information does not constitute foreshadowing.

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Hyperbole

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A description which exaggerates, usually employing extremes and/or superlatives to convey a positive or negative attribute; “hype.”

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Iambic pentameter

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A poetic meter wherein each line contains ten syllables, as five repetitions of a two-syllable pattern in which the pronunciation emphasis is on the second syllable.

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Imagery

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Language which describes something in detail, using words to substitute for and create sensory stimulation, including visual imagery and sound imagery. Also refers to specific and recurring types of images, such as food imagery and nature imagery. (Not all descriptions can rightly be called imagery; the key is the appeal to and stimulation of specific senses, usually visual. It is often advisable to specify the type of imagery being used, and consider the significance of the images themselves, to distinguish imagery from mere description.)

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Irony (a.k.a. Situational irony)

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Where an event occurs which is unexpected, in the sense that it is somehow in absurd or mocking opposition to what would be expected or appropriate. Mere coincidence is generally not ironic; neither is mere surprise, nor are any random or arbitrary occurrences.

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Metaphor

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A direct relationship where one thing or idea substitutes for another.

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Mood

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The atmosphere or emotional condition created by the piece, within the setting. Mood refers to the general sense or feeling which the reader is supposed to get from the text; it does not, as a literary element, refer to the author’s or characters’ state of mind. (Note that mood is a literary element, not a technique; the mood must therefore be described or identified. It would be incorrect to simply state, “The author uses mood.”)

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Motif

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A recurring important idea or image. A motif differs from a theme in that it can be expressed as a single word or fragmentary phrase, while a theme usually must be expressed as a complete sentence.

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Onomatopoeia

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Where sounds are spelled out as words; or, when words describing sounds actually sound like the sounds they describe.

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Oxymoron

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A contradiction in terms.

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Paradox

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Where a situation is created which cannot possibly exist, because different elements of it cancel each other out.

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Parallelism

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Use of similar or identical language, structures, events or ideas in different parts of a text.

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Personification (I)

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Where inanimate objects or abstract concepts are seemingly endowed with human self-awareness; where human thoughts, actions, perceptions and emotions are directly attributed to inanimate objects or abstract ideas. (Not to be confused with anthropomorphism.)

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Personification (II)

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Where an abstract concept, such as a particular human behavior or a force of nature, is represented as a person.

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Plot

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Sequence of events in a story. Most literary essay tasks will instruct the writer to “avoid plot summary;” the term is therefore rarely useful for response or critical analysis. When discussing plot, it is generally more useful to consider and analyze its structure, rather than simply recapitulate “what happens.”

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Point-of-view

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The identity of the narrative voice; the person or entity through whom the reader experiences the story. May be third-person (no narrator; abstract narrative voice, omniscient or limited) or first-person (narrated by a character in the story or a direct observer). Point-of-view is a commonly misused term; it does not refer to the author’s or characters’ feelings, opinions, perspectives, biases, etc.

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Protagonist

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The main character in a story, the one with whom the reader is meant to identify. The person is not necessarily “good” by any conventional moral standard, but he/she is the person in whose plight the reader is most invested. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself.)

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Repetition

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Where a specific word, phrase, or structure is repeated several times, usually in close proximity, to emphasize a particular idea.

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Setting

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The time and place where a story occurs. The setting can be specific (e.g., New York City in 1930) or ambiguous (e.g., a large urban city during economic hard times). Also refers directly to a description thereof. When discussing or analyzing setting, it is generally insufficient to merely identify the time and place; an analysis of setting should include a discussion of its overall impact on the story and characters.

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Simile

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An indirect relationship where one thing or idea is described as being similar to another. Similes usually contain the words “like” or “as,” but not always.

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Speaker

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The “voice” of a poem; not to be confused with the poet him/herself. Analogous to the narrator in prose fiction.

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Structure

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The manner in which the various elements of a story are assembled.

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Symbolism

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The use of specific objects or images to represent abstract ideas. This term is commonly misused, describing any and all representational relationships, which in fact are more often metaphorical than symbolic. A symbol must be something tangible or visible, while the idea it symbolizes must be something abstract or universal. (In other words, a symbol must be something you can hold in your hand or draw a picture of, while the idea it symbolizes must be something you can’t hold in your hand or draw a picture of.)

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Theme

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The main idea or message conveyed by the piece. A theme should generally be expressed as a complete sentence; an idea expressed by a single word or fragmentary phrase is usually a motif.

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Tone

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The apparent emotional state, or “attitude,” of the speaker/narrator/narrative voice, as conveyed through the language of the piece. Tone refers only to the narrative voice; not to the author or characters. It must be described or identified in order to be analyzed properly; it would be incorrect to simply state, “The author uses tone.”

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Tragedy

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Where a story ends with a negative or unfortunate outcome which was essentially avoidable, usually caused by a flaw in the central character’s personality. Tragedy is really more of a dramatic genre than a literary element; a play can be referred to as a tragedy, but tragic events in a story are essentially part of the plot, rather than a literary device in themselves. When discussing tragedy, or analyzing a story as tragic, look to the other elements of the story which combine to make it tragic.

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Tragic hero/tragic figure

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A protagonist who comes to a bad end as a result of his own behavior, usually cased by a specific personality disorder or character flaw. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself.)

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Tragic flaw

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The single characteristic (usually negative) or personality disorder which causes the downfall of the protagonist.

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Verbal irony

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Where the meaning of a specific expression is, or is intended to be, the exact opposite of what the words literally mean. (Sarcasm is a tone of voice that often accompanies verbal irony, but they are not the same thing.)

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Allusion

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a brief reference to a person, event, or place, real or ficticious, or to a work of art. Casual reference to a famous historical or literary figure or event.
An allusion may be drawn from history, geography, literature, or religion.

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Amplification

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use of bare expressions, likely to be ignored or misunderstood by a hearer or reader because of the bluntness. Emphasis through restatement with additional details.

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Anagram

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a word or phrase made by transposing the letters.

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Anaphora

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The deliberate repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of several successive verses, clauses, or paragraphs.
One of the devices of repetition, in which the same phrase is repeated at the beginning of two or more lines.

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anastrophe

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inversion of the normal syntactic order of words, for example: To market went she.[Gk. anastrophe

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Antithesis

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opposition, or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel construction.

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Aphorism

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a brief saying embodying a moral, a concise statement of a principle or precept given in pointed words.

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Apostrophe

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when an absent person, an abstract concept, or an important object is directly addressed.

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Archetype

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the usage of any object or situation as it was originally made - think of it as the biggest cliché ever, but one that never dies. ex: The Odyssey is so full of archetypes that there is probably at least one of every kind. Odysseus is the archetipical hero, Hydra and Charybdis and the Cyclops are the archetypical monsters...

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Assonance

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the repetition of vowel sounds but not consonant sounds ex. fleet feet sweep by sleeping geeks.

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Asyndterm

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a stylistic scheme in which conjunctions are deliberately omitted from a series of related clauses. Examples are veni, vidi, vici and its English translation "I came, I saw, I conquered." Its use can have the effect of speeding up the rhythm of a passage and making a single idea more memorable. More generally, in grammar, an asyndetic coordination is a type of coordination in which no coordinating conjunction is present between the conjuncts.

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Bibliomancy

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prediction based on a Bible verse or literary passage chosen at random.

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Bildungsroman

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a story in which the protagonist undergoes growth throughout the entire narrative, generally starting off by being removed or chased from their home. Their growth is often impeded by opposition of their desires by other characters.

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Cacophony

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harsh, discordant sounds. Opposite of euphony.

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Caesura

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a natural pause or break.

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Characterization

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the method used by a writer to develop a character. The method includes (1) showing the character's appearance, (2) displaying the character's actions, (3) revealing the character's thoughts, (4) letting the character speak, and (5) getting the reactions of others.

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chiasmus

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A type of rhetoric in which the second part is syntactically balanced against the first.

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Circumlocution

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the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter form of expression; a roundabout or indirect manner of writing or speaking. In literature periphrasis is sometimes used for comic effect.

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Conflict/Plot

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the struggle found in fiction. Conflict/Plot may be internal or external and is best seen in (1) Man in conflict with another Man: (2) Man in conflict in Nature; (3) Man in conflict with self.

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Connotation

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an implied meaning of a word. Opposite of denotation.

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Consonance

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the repetition of consonant sounds, but not vowels, as in assonance.

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Denotation

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the literal meaning of a word, the dictionary meaning. Opposite of connotation.

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Deus ex Machina

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(literally "god out of a machine")) is an improbable contrivance in a story. The phrase describes an artificial, or improbable, character, device, or event introduced suddenly in a work of fiction or drama to resolve a situation or untangle a plot (such as an angel suddenly appearing to solve problems). The term is a negative one, and it often implies a lack of skill on the part of the writer.

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Doppelganger

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a ghostly double of another character, especially if it haunts its counterpart - a doppelganger, in german, means "double walker" - it's like a carbon copy of a character with a different soul. However, one of the criteria for a doppelganger isn't that it looks like its counterpart. Frankenstein and his monster are considered to be doppelgangers.

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Euphemism

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a commonly used term used to express a certain idea without bluntly declaring that idea) Ex: He kicked the bucket

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Euphony

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soothing pleasant sounds. Opposite of cacophony.

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Faulty parallelism

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occurs when the elements put into pairs and series "go in different directions" because they do not have the same form. In other words, nouns should be coordinated with nouns, verbs with verbs, adjectives with adjectives, adverbs with adverbs, phrases with phrases, and clauses with clauses. To check for faulty parallelism it is often useful to underline or otherwise mark parallel (coordinate) elements. Following are three common types of faulty parallelism: faulty pairs, the shifted series, and the "and who" or "and which" construction.

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Flashback

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action that interrupts to show an event that happened at an earlier time which is necessary to better understanding.

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Foil

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a character that contrasts another character, often the protagonist, that therefore highlights certain qualities of the protagonist (or whoever the foil may be). Ex: Don Quixote is the foil to Sancho Panza

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Foreshadowing

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the use of hints or clues to suggest what will happen later in literature.

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Hyperbaton

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An inversion of normal word order. A generic term for a variety of figures involving transposition (see below), it is sometimes synonymous with anastrophe.

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Hyperbole

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exaggeration or overstatement.
Opposite of Understatement

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Image

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language that evokes one or all of the five senses: seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, touching.

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Internal Rhyme

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rhyming within a line.

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kenning

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a kenning is a magic poetic phrase, a figure of speech, substituted for the usual name of a person or thing.

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Juxtaposition

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In literature, it's when one theme or idea or person or whatever is paralleled to another.

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Malapropism

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an act or habit of misusing words ridiculously, esp. by the confusion of words that are similar in sound.

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Metaphor

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comparison of two unlike things using the verb "to be" and not using like or as as in a simile.

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Metonymy

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substituting a word for another word closely associated with it.

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pathetic fallacy

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The attribution of human traits to nature or inanimate objects.

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Periphrasis

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Adding in superfluous words to extend the message you are trying to give - "beating around the bush", so to speak.

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periodic structure

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A sentence in which the main clause or its predicate is withheld until the end; for example, Despite heavy winds and nearly impenetrable ground fog, the plane landed safely.

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polysyndeton

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The repetition of connectives or conjunctions in close succession for rhetorical effect, as in the phrase here and there and everywhere.

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portmanteau

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combination of two or more words to create a new word.

Example:
smog is the combination of smoke and fog

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pun

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a figure of speech which consists of a deliberate confusion of similar words or phrases for rhetorical effect, whether humorous or serious.

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Rhyme Scheme

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rhymed words at the ends of lines.

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Rhyme

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a pattern of words that contain similar sounds.

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satire

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a literary tone used to ridicule or make fun of human vice or weakness, often with the intent of correcting, or changing, the subject of the satiric attack.

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Setting

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determining Time and Place in fiction.

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Simile

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the comparison of two unlike things using like or as.

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Spoonerism

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the shuffling of the first letters of words to make different words and therefore change the actual meaning of the sentence, or else produce a humerous, non-sensical sound. Ex: Rather than "I have to blow my nose", "I have to nose my blows". Or, in an example by Strong Bad, rather than "this is a cellular telophone", "this is a tellular cellophone".

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Stanza

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a unified group of lines in poetry.

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Stream of consciousness:

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* a special mode of narration that undertakes to capture the full spectrum and the
continuous flow of a character's mental process

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Synecdoche

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when one uses a part to represent the whole.

Example:
lend me your ears (give me your attention).

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Symbol

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is using an object or action that means something more than its literal meaning.

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Synesthesia

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the conflation of the senses.

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Theme

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he general idea or insight about life that a writer wishes to express. All of the elements of literary terms contribute to theme. A simple theme can often be stated in a single sentence.

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Tone

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the attitude a writer takes towards a subject or character: serious, humorous, sarcastic, ironic, satirical, tongue-in-cheek, solemn, objective. Similar to Mood

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Understatement

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This device is used to understate the obvious. On a day of extreme weather, like it is really really hot, one might say, "Is it warm enough for you?" or on a very very cold day one might say, "Balmy out isn't it?"

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verisimilitude

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The appearance of truth; the quality of seeming to be true.

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Verse

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a line of poetry.