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125 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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slang (10)
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-stylistic choices in language--equivalent words vary in terms of formality
1) common slang-- slightly informal for letters of application (ex: fridge, tv) 2) in-group slang-- unites insiders and excludes outsiders...is contingent upon the group and time (generations have diff slang) - some words last for a brief while while others fade away and return later |
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jargon (10)
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technical language used pragmatically
- present in jobs, fields of study, hobbies, and sports ex: dermatitis instead of rash suggests competency -jargon incorporated into every day speech: hardware, software, blast off, strike out |
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mutual intelligibility (10)
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-used to help us differentiate DIALECTS from LANGUAGES
-varieties are mutually intelligible if speakers of one can understand speakers of another (ex: speakers in Boston, MA can understand speakers from Albany, GA) -culture, politics, and geography make distinguishing varieties difficult (ex: Mandarin and Cantonese are considered dialects of the same language bc they share a writing system BUT they are NOT mutually intelligible |
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how to distinguish bw different dialects and different languages (10)
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-use linguistic(1) and social/political(2) criterion to decide if they are different dialects or just separate languages:
1) based on mutual intelligibility 2) check whether the languages are spoken inside the autonomous country |
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dialects continuum (10)
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dialects next to one another are quite related...but those on the extreme of the continuum are mutually UNintelligible
ex: Dutch and German and the dialects in between |
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speech community (10)
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a group of people who speak the same dialect
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extralinguistic factors (10)
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help define speech communities
ex: region, SES, age, gender, ethnicity |
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communicative isolation (10)
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when a group of speakers forms a speech community isolated from outside speakers
-why?--bc of increased mobility and mass media (which allow speech communities to be influenced by others) |
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speech styles (10)
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variations in speech based on factors like topic, setting, and addressee (person being addressed)
-described by degrees of formality--casual, careful, formal, informal |
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registers (10)
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levels of speech formality
ex: we use a formal register to address the president |
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style shifting (10)
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a speaker switches from one speech style to another, often with great ease
- a speaker knows his/her audience and adjusts to fit that audience EX: a doctor describing double bypass heart surgery to a patient vs at a medical conference |
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standard dialect (10)
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the main avenue of communication across dialects
- used in the media, politics, and higher SES classes-- is tied to people in power and adopts the prestige given to it BY the people (by itself, the standard dialect holds no rpestige) |
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nonstandard dialects (10)
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those dialects other than the standard one
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prescriptive standard (10)
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used to deem speech "right" and "wrong"
EX: double-negative usage is based on societal opinion -gramatically correct = "right" |
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hypercorrection (10)
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forming nonstandard forms through false analogy
-a prestige group can violate a rule and thus make the violation standard |
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Standard American English (SAE) (10)
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varies in terms of grammar rather than pronunciation...unlear of what it actually consists
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bidialectal (10)
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speakers who master both a standard and nonstandard variety
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overt prestige (10)
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used to gain status in society
-refers to prestige associated with a particular language variety and using it to gain status |
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covert prestige (10)
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refers to the prestige one obtains by adhering to the rules of a nonstandard-speaking group
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regional variation (10)
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a type of variation based on geographical boundaries--EX: differences bw American English and British English
-influenced by the people with whom you have face to face communication -more influences by the patterns of settlement than the geography of the region -isolation: being isolated from other speakers allows a dialect to form in its own way -dialectologists rely on field work to determine different dialect regions -when there are BUNDLES OF ISOGLOSSES, it indicated that the speech of a specific group is very difference from the surrounding groups |
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style shifting (10)
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a speaker switches from one speech style to another, often with great ease
- a speaker knows his/her audience and adjusts to fit that audience EX: a doctor describing double bypass heart surgery to a patient vs at a medical conference |
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standard dialect (10)
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the main avenue of communication across dialects
- used in the media, politics, and higher SES classes-- is tied to people in power and adopts the prestige given to it BY the people (by itself, the standard dialect holds no rpestige) |
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nonstandard dialects (10)
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those dialects other than the standard one
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prescriptive standard (10)
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used to deem speech "right" and "wrong"
EX: double-negative usage is based on societal opinion -gramatically correct = "right" |
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hypercorrection (10)
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forming nonstandard forms through false analogy
-a prestige group can violate a rule and thus make the violation standard |
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Standard American English (SAE) (10)
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varies in terms of grammar rather than pronunciation...unlear of what it actually consists
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bidialectal (10)
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speakers who master both a standard and nonstandard variety
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overt prestige (10)
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used to gain status in society
-refers to prestige associated with a particular language variety and using it to gain status |
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covert prestige (10)
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refers to the prestige one obtains by adhering to the rules of a nonstandard-speaking group
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regional variation (10)
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a type of variation based on geographical boundaries--EX: differences bw American English and British English
-influenced by the people with whom you have face to face communication -more influences by the patterns of settlement than the geography of the region -isolation: being isolated from other speakers allows a dialect to form in its own way -dialectologists rely on field work to determine different dialect regions -when there are BUNDLES OF ISOGLOSSES, it indicated that the speech of a specific group is very difference from the surrounding groups |
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a case study in regional variation: the US (10)
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-the regional dialects in the US began when settlers from England came to America
-Eastern and central regions of England settled in eastern New England and the VA Tidewater area -Northern and Western parts of England settled in New Jersey and Delaware -Scots-irish from Ulster settled in parts of Western New England, New York, and Appalachia -migration westward followed similar patterns -contact between English and Native American languages, the arrival of other Euro immigrants, and the arrival of African slaves all resulted in regional dialect areas -Approximate dialect regions: North, New England, South, Appalachia, Midland, West |
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founder principle (10)
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the language variety spoken by the first people in a community becomes the basis for the community's language variety
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social dialects (10)
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dialects of a language based on speaker characteristics associated with specific social groups involving SES, age, gender, and ethnicity
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socioeconomic variation (10)
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often to express solidarity and camaraderie OR to separate from other groups
- William Labov studied "r" lessness in 1972 NYC department stores **confirmed that "r" lessness stratifies based on socioeconomic considerations |
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age variation (10)
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younger speakers do not speak the same way as older speakers
-linguistically speaking, these are naturally occurring changes that take place EX: use of the word google, the use of "like" as an interjection or quotative |
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gender variation (10)
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gender is a social construct--language is the only way a person can construct a gender identity
-the basis for the constructions (aka social norms) are arbitrary and vary from culture to culture EX: men dominate public speech in western society bc it values direct, public speech BUT in Malagasy culture, mean remain silent in public bc they value indirect, deferential speech -women tend to use more standardized language than men **hypotheses to explain this: 1) women are trying to compensate for society considering them inferior 2) women hold themselves to higher standards bc they believe themselves responsible for passing language to their children - female speech can differ also bc of social roles EX: Japanese women use more polite forms than Japanese men |
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ethnic variation (10)
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languages that represent a group's heritage and culture can mix with the standard language of the area to produce a specific dialect
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African American English (AEA) (10)
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includes features from southern dialects and many West African languages
*monopthongization-- dipthongs in words like "now","slide", and "time" change to monopthongs *word final consonant cluster reduction-- "cold cuts" = colcuts, "best kind" = beskind *past tense suffix deletion-- "burned my hand"...drop the -ed *absence of a third person singular suffix -s *multiple negation **an example of a social dialect based on ethnicity |
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Chicano English (10)
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varieties of English spoken by 2nd nad 3rd generation speakers of Mexican descent in the US (many speakers have little to no Spanish fluency)
-emblematic language use: * using Spanish words/phrases to symbolically reference cultural heritage/identity (EX: abuelo, guey) -monopthongization due to the fact that Spanish only has 5 vowels and no dipthongs -past participle replaces standard past tense - topicalization: moving the object (noun phrase) of a sentence to the beginning of a sentence *EX: "I talk about myself, it's easy for me" |
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Lumbee English (10)
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spoken by the Lumbee Indians (the largest Native American group east of the Mississippi river)
- replace /aI/ with /oI/ -word changes: tobacco = baccer, potato = tater -use "weren't" as first-person past instead of "wasn't" -unique words: *ellick ( coffee with sugar and cream), yerker (mischevious child), buddyrow (friend), toten (ghost) |
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language contact (11)
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contact of 2 or more distinct languages either indirectly through the written form or other various media, or directly through social contact via speakers
-nowadays, one can learn English without ever encountering a native speaker if English (a result of globalization) -languages that CONTINUALLY come in contact with one another can have a variety of different effects (EX: occurring today bw Spanish and American English due to the arrival of hispanic/latino immigrants) - contact situations are described in terms of: (1) their influence on the linguistic systems (2) the social relationships of the speakers in contact (3) the ultimate linguistic outcome of the contact |
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borrowing (11)
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the adoption by one language of linguistic elements from another language
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lexical borrowing (11)
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borrowing of words or phrases
-known as loans or loanwords EX: *ballet, chaise (French) *macho, taco (Spanish) * pizza, spaghetti (Italian), burrito, quesadilla (Spanish) -when a comes into the English vocabulary, it also comes into the English phonology and its original phonology is changed (EX: Japanese words: Toyota, Karaoke, Kyoto, Bonsai) - 2 types of words that do NOT get borrow bw languages: core vocabulary, grammatical function words |
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core vocabulary (11)
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words for basic items, such as body parts, familiar relations, or basic environmental entities
- no reason to borrow (bc if a language exists, it should already have these words bc they are so universal in nature) |
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grammatical function words (11)
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most languages either already have them (is, by, through, in) or simply choose not to express ideas in the fashion (ex: determiners are not used in Japanese)
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loan translations/ calques (11)
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occurs when a language goes through a word-by-word translation into native morphemes of another language's phrase
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structural borrowing (11)
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borrowing of phonological, morphological, or syntactic features
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phonological borrowing (11)
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occurs when a new language adopts new sounds or phonological rules from a languages with which it is in contact
- a type of structural borrowing EX: phonological rules converting [k] to [s] in word pairs like electric/electricity are borrowed from French |
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morphological borrowing (11)
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adoption of morphological elements by one language under the influence of another language
EX: from Latin to English: colloquium-->colloquia (NOT colloquiums) -a type of structural borrowing |
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syntactic borrowing (11)
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adoption of another language's ordering requirements of surface elements into another language, replacing native word order
EX: Greek spoken in Turkey: originally SVO (subject, verb, object) bur adopted SOV word order under Turkish influence |
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actual acquisition of elements of another language are determined by certain nonlinguistic characteristics (11)
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1. intensity of contact
2. prestige/power 3. native language interference |
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intensity of contact (11)
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measured from high-contact to low-contact--> determined by the level of interaction among the speakers
- intense contact situation: LONG TERM contact with a HIGH level of social interaction - low-intensity contact situation: contact not existed for long, and LIMITED social interaction of speakers -lexical borrowing can occur in LOW-INTENSITY contact situation ** single words may be adopted without extensive knowledge of the language from which the word is being borrowed -adoption of structural elements requires a HIGH-intensity contact situation **requires bilingualism-->speaker that is knowledgeable of both respective languages |
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prestige/power (11)
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adstratum languages
superstratum/substratum languages |
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adstratum languages (11)
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when the 2 languages at hand are considered to be of equal prestige
EX: Norse in Early English -both languages serve as the donor and recipient simunltaneously--bidirectional |
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superstratum/substratum languages (11)
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when one language has a higher prestige (superstratum) compared to another language (substratum)
EX: English is considered superstratum to Native American languages; Greek is considered substratum to German IN GERMANY, but Greek is the superstratum language in Greek itself -superstratum languages typically serve as the donor, accepting very few, if any, loan words--unidirectional |
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Native Language Interference (11)
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typical in contact situations resulting from immigration
-occurs when language is acquired in a natural setting rather than in a school setting--often known as SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION -transfer or substrate influence: ** when immigrants' native language affects the way the second language is learned (EX: a japanese immigrant may say "I want cat" bc Japanese doesn't have determiners) |
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language convergence (11)
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development of mutual agreement of the language systems in contact
-result of speakers of different adstratal languages entering into extensive, long-term contact -DOES NOT MEAN THE LANGUAGES ARE MUTUALLY INTELLIGIBLE -when several languages enter into such an alliance, it is known as a SPRACHBUND (German word meaning 'a union of languages') EX: Balkan Sprachbund of southeastern Europe--consists of Albanian, Macedonian, Greek, Romanian, Bulgarian, and Serbo-Croation **areas where the languages are spoken are close together |
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language shift (11)
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shift by a group of speakers toward another language, ABANDONING their native language
- occurs during extensive, long-term contact bw languages that have an unequal prestige relationship ** often results in language death |
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language death (11)
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occurs when sifters are the only speakers of that native language
**such has been the fate of many Native American languages |
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pidgin languages (11)
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simplified, yet distinct language that is created when 2 or more people do not share a common language (bringing together 2 people of mutually UNINTELLIGIBLE languages)
**one way to overcome the language barrier -typically arises in settings where people come together for TRADE -NOT the primary language of the speakers - are not grammarless or broken versions of other languages...they grow and develop over time EX: Chinook Jargon-- spoken by Native American, British, and French traders in the Pacific Northwest in the 19th century |
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creole languages (11)
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languages created bw 2 peoples as a means of a common, primary means of communication
**more likely to become the native language - unlike pidgin languages, this is more capable of becoming the native language of the speakers after a few generations EX: languages created in the southern US and Caribbean to facilitate communication bw the Africans and Europeans-- Gullah = spoken in coastal regions of South Carolina and GA -considered creole bc it is used for a wide range of communicative purposes, not just trade, and it REMAINED OVER A LONGER PERIOD OF TIME |
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bilingual mixed languages (intertwined languages) (11)
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two languages that become fused near equally
-occurs in contact situations with a high degree of bilingualism among the speakers EX: Canadian French- contributes phonology, lexicon, morphology, and syntax of noun phrases |
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stages of pidgin development (11)
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Stage 1: Pre-pidgin Jargon
Stage 2: Crystallization Stage 3: Prototypical pidgins OR expanded pidgins |
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Stage 1: pre-pidgin jargon (11)
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little or no grammar and large speaker-to-speaker variation
-limited vocabulary |
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Stage 2: crystallization (11)
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formation of grammatical conventions
-without established grammar, there is not pidgin -occurs when children begin speaking the language -after crystallization, the language can develop in 2 ways: *prototypical pidgins OR * expanded pidgins |
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Stage 3: prototypical pidgins (11)
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pidgins that emerge rapidly in situations where contact is SOCIAL ONLY
-limited grammar and vocabulary |
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Stage 3: expanded pidgins (11)
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not limited to certain settings
-contain larger lexical and structural resources that prototypical pidgin -as linguistically complex as any other language -can develop from a pre-pidgin jargon to a prototypical pidgin to an expanded pidgin |
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sources of pidgin lexicon and grammar (11)
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usually made of elements from all of the languages in contact
- the vocab is most often derived from the socially and/or economically dominant language (the superstrate) thought the other languages can also supply some of the lexicon **language that supplies most of the lexicon = the LEXIFIER -word order generally comes from the superstrate -phonology usually comes from the other languages in contact and frequently has a strong influence from the socially and/or economically NON-dominant language (substrate) -syntax is often reduced (which makes it difficult to determine the base languages) -have some derivational morphology, but no inflectional |
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common features of pidgins (11)
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most pidgins, regardless of the source languages,share characteristics.
**some similarities are so striking that universal strategies of second-language learning play a role in the formation of the languages -phonology: ** consonant clusters are usually reduced (this indicated that pidgind have a preference for syllable types closer to the CV type) -Morphology: ** a common feature is the absence of affixes, even to indicate plurality ** usually a reduction in the number of morphemes **reduplication -syntax: ** SVO word order is most common ** dont use articles -semantics: ** typically have very small vocabularies--> but lack of variety is made up for by the extension of meaning to multiple objects **combinations of words are also common due to the limited vocabulary |
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bilingualism (11)
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people who speak two languages or dialects
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multilingualism (11)
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people who speak two, three, four or more languages or dialects
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societal multilingualism (11)
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the product of people being in regular contact with each other
- whole communities and societies that are multilingual -common in Asia, Africa, immigrant communities (aka places that have been colonized) EX: India- most people speak Hindi, their regional language, and English - societal multilingualism is sometimes used more generally to refer to two or more languages spoken within one country ** in the US, although there are many languages spoken, the majority of Americans are monolingual, making them the MINORITY compared to the rest of a mostly multilingual world |
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code switching (11)
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the use of 2 languages or dialects within a a single utterance or within a single conversation
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diglossia (11)
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the situation where different languages or dialects are used for different functions
-was customarily used to refer to a situation where a standard or regional dialects was used in conversation but a formal variety was used for most writing EX: ebonics used in conversation but more formal english used in writing - has been expanded to mean any situation where 2 languages or dialects are used for different functions within a society, such as one language being spoken at home or informally and another languages used for more formal, official purposes in "higher education" |
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rough estimate of how many languages exist in the world (11)
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6,000
less than 10% of known languages account for 90% of speakers **most languages are minority languages within the larger social context |
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language endangerment/ endangered language (11)
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occurs when a language no longer has any speakers actively using it--> considered to be moribund
- the status of "killer" versus "dying" language is locally determined -endangerment is determined by social circumstances that guide interactions between two speech communities in the same area (who differ by population numbers and dominance) |
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language death (11)
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occurs when a language no longer has any speakers actively using it
**because dead or extinct languages can be "revived" under the right conditions, some linguists prefer to call them "dormant" EX: Hebrew in modern day Israel was revived with a lot of dedication and effort |
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pressures that lead minority speakers to give up their language in favor of the majority language (11)
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-problems of access to mainstream economic opportunities
-potential for ridicule, overt discrimination, prejudices -lack of instruction in their native language -limited "domains of usage" for language (limited scope of where you can apply your language) |
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three generational drop-off (11)
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the last fully fluent generation gives way to assimilation and then give birth to transitional language who then give birth to dominant language speakers
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semi-speakers (11)
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"terminal speakers"
-speakers with some command of the language, but not full fluency |
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3 classifications of langauges (11)
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(1) Living: the language is used everyday by native speakers and is acquired by newborns in that speech community
** EX: English, Spanish, French, etc (2) Moribund: the language is used now but is NOT acquired by by children ** EX: Native American Indian languages (3) dead: the language is not used for everyday purposes and is not acquired by newborns * EX: Latin |
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synchronic linguistics (12)
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analysis of a language at a certain point in time (describing the current phonological processes of a language, isolating the language's morphemes, or discovering the syntactic rules)
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diachronic linguistics (12)
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the analysis of a language over time
-study the language's development |
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historical linguistics (12)
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concerned with language change, what kinds of change occur and why, and what changes don't occur and why not
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protolanguage (12)
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an earlier common ancestor of language
-languages evolve from a single "mother" language (Proto-Indo-European)--form a language family |
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how to determine if 2 languages are related or just simply similar (12)
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(1) check to see that there are a large number of correlations between form and meaning across the 2 languages
-when the correlations are not confined to a few words, we minimize the chances of coincidence misleading us (2) check the types of words that correlate across the languages bc 2 languages may have similar words due to LANGUAGE BORROWING (3) when 2 languages share many form-meaning mappings across their vocabularies, it usually means they are "genetically related" |
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reasons that 2 languages have elements in common (12)
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-languages are spoken by humans, and humans are anatomically similar-->makes sense that there are the same sounds in many phonological inventories
**EX: [p] and [a] occur in most languages bc they are some of the most basic sounds to make -two languages may have coincidentally hit upon similar ways of expressing the same meaning -occasionally language is not arbitrary and there is an iconic connection bw the word and the meaning -language borrowing: ** Spanish has borrowed "alcalde" and "naranja" from Arabic -languages are "genetically related" to each other, which means at one point they may have been the same language, but over time split into 2 different varieties |
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family tree theory (12)
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assumes that speech sounds change in regular, recognizable ways (the regularity hypothesis) and bc of this, phonological similarities among languages may be due to a genetic relationship among these languages (the relatedness hypothesis)
-in order to fill in the particulars of a relationship, you must reconstruct the hypothetical parent--> use the comparative method |
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wave theory (12)
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builds on the Family Tree model but recognizes the GRADUAL SPREAD of change through dialect, language, or groups of languages...like how a wave expands on the surface of a pond
-avoids the problems of the family tree diagram but suffers the disadvantage of problems in analyzing the genetic history of the languages involved |
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sound change (12)
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the alteration in the phonetics of a sound as a result of a phonological process
-if a phonological process is introduced into a language where it did not formerly occur, it may result in sound change -is the most widely studied aspect of language change **provides a good introduction to the basic aims of linguists: to describe changes possible in a language and to determine the causes of them EX: introduction of palatalization in old English resulted in the sound change k>tS before [i] **BUT...the introduction of a phonological process into a language alone can't be considered a sound change, but it is a necessary 1st step |
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regularity of sound change (12)
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sound change is regular: every instance of the sound in question will undergo the change
-doesn't happen overnight...the acceptance of sound change in a community is a gradual process, spreading from word to word and from one speaker to the next until all possible words and speakers are affected *EX: modern english word 'house' was spelled 'hus' and pronounced [hus] in old english. this change eventually moved to all instances, so that the sound change u>au... |
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unconditioned sound change (12)
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the change occurs in every instance, no matter where it occurred in a word or what sounds were next to it
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conditioned sound change (12)
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when a sound changes bc of the influence of a neighboring sound; applies only when a sound appears in a CERTAIN ENVIRONMENT
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assimilation (12)
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when one sound becomes more like another sound (conditioned)
EX: old english word for 'wolves,' wulfas [wulfas] later was pronounced [wulvas] in middle english 9this is how modern english has an alternation bw [f] and [v] in the singular word 'wolf' vs the plural 'wolves' |
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dissimilation (12)
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when 2 similar sounds become less like one another (conditioned)
EX: the word 'fifth' has undergone changed in which the 2nd fricative has been replaced by a voiceless stop [t] giving the pronunciation [fift] |
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deletion (12)
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occurs when a sound is no longer pronounced (conditioned)
EX: look at worksheet |
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insertion (12)
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occurs when a sound is added to the pronunciation of a word (conditioned)
EX: some people pronounce the word 'athlete' as 'athuhlete' bc they have inserted a schwa |
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monopthongization (12)
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refers to a change from a dipthong to a monopthong...complex to simple (unconditioned)
EX: in middle English the dipthong [iU] ('ew') became [u] in modern english **words like rule, rude, new, due |
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dipthongization (12)
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refers to a change from a monopthong to a dipthong...simple to complex (unconditioned)
EX: in middle English [i] became a dipthong [aI] (middle english 'is' became modern english 'ice') |
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metathesis (12)
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change in the order of sounds (conditioned)
EX: Old english words 'hros' 'frist' 'tridde' and 'bridd' are modern english 'horse' 'first' 'third' 'bird' ** the consonant-/r/-vowel-consonant sequence changed to consonant-vowel-/r/-consonant sequence, with the vowel and /r/ changing places |
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raising and lowering (12)
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changes in the height of the tongue in the production of sounds; can be either conditioned or unconditioned
EX: Middle English 'noon' was pronounced [non] with a long mid, back vowel, but by the end of the period it was [nun] with the tongue height raised from mid to high |
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backing and fronting (12)
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alterations in the frontness or backness of the tongue in the production of sounds (unconditioned except for in certain situations)
EX: back vowel [a] became front vowel in words like 'calf 'path' 'glass' 'past' ask' |
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phonetic change (12)
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refers to a change in the pronunciation of allophones that has no effect on the phonemic system of the language
-can also add or delete an allophone or substitute one allophone for another but it still doesn't change the phonemic system **EX: the english phoneme /r/ has undergone several changes, but the changes only affected the pronunciations of words with /r/--? all of them still have the phoneme /r/ in the same phonological distribution |
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phonemic changes (12)
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refers to sound change that changed the phonemic system of a language in some way, usually by the addition or loss of a phoneme
EX: look at worksheet |
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morphological change (12)
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changes in the structure of words
**proportional analogy and paradigm leveling (both introduce regularity into a language) -involves the influence of one form or group of forms over another (analogy or analogical change) |
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proportional analogy (12)
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the morphological change as a 4-part proportion:
Verb (present) : Verb + ed (past) :: climb (present) : climbed (past) ** look at worksheet |
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paradigm leveling (12)
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a paradigm is a set of inflectionally related forms
**look at worksheet |
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back formation (12)
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deals with the creation of a new base form
- opportunity for misanalysis EX: work+er : work :: burglar : burgle **burgle is not initially in the english language |
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folk etymology (12)
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taking obscure morphemes and making them into more familiar ones
-occurs when the morphology of the word is obscure to the speaker -important factors are phonological similarity and semantic relationship *EX: Old English-- brydeguma; New English: bridegroom **phonological similarity- 'guma' and 'groom' sound alike **semantic relationship- 'groom' referred to as a "serving man" |
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adding new words to a language (12)
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Acronyms: new words are formed by the initial sounds of common words
* EX: NATO (North American Treaty Organization) Blends: new words are formed from the combination of 2 words -the formation of the new morphemes don't have meanings on their own *EX: smog (smoke and fog) Clipping: new words are formed from the shortening of existing words *EX: exam (examination) Coinages: words are created without a specific methods and without using any other word or word parts that previously exist *EX: pooch, snob Conversions: words are created by changing the part of speech of the word without actually changing the form of the word (functional shift) *EX: Laugh (initially- verb; currently- verb and noun) Eponyms: words are created through the names of the people who are connected with them *EX: City- Washington DC (named for George Washington and Christopher Colombus) |
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Internal reconstruction (12)
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the analysis of data from a single language in order to make hypotheses about the language's history
-a linguist may learn a great deal even if there is no known related language to compare the first language to -includes morphological alternation |
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morphological alternation (12)
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the creation of alternate pronunciations for the same morpheme (one of the effects of conditioned sound change)
*EX: in english's earlier history, fricatives became voices intervocalically--> [wi:fas] changes to [wi:vas] **in the singular form, [wi:f], the fricative [f] did not become voiced bc it did not occur before a vowel -when morphological alternations are created by sound change, we can often infer what sound change(s) caused the alternations by examining the phonetic context of the alternate pronunciations -English can provide straightforward examples of the recovery of an earlier sound change via morphological alternation *EX: voiced velar stop [g] is not pronounced when it preceded a word-final nasal like [saIn] but it is pronounced in related words is the nasal is not word-final as in 'signal' |
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comparative reconstruction (12)
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involves the systematic comparison of multiple related languages in order to make hypotheses about the common protolanguage they descend from
-must assume that sound change is REGULAR (all sounds in a given environment will undergo the same change and that change will eventually be reflected systematically through that language's vocabulary) EX: a language might undergo and unconditioned change of [p] to [f] where every [p] in every word is replaced by [f] |
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arbitrary relationship (12)
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the relationship bw a word's form and meaning makes it highly unlikely that unrelated languages will share large numbers of similar words of familiar form and meaning
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regularity (12)
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the regularity of sound change shows that 2 or more languages that are related will show regular SOUND CORRESPONDENCES
**in order for a sound correspondence to be regular, it must occur in other words that have form-meaning pairings that are similar |
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comparative method procedure (12)
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(1) compile cognate sets, eliminate borrowings
-cognates--> 2 or more words that have descended from the same source and are thus very similar in form and meaning (2) determine sound correspondences -find the sound correspondences bw words in the same position in the words in each cognate set (3) reconstruct a sound for each position -determine the original protoform using the steps in this order: *Total correspondence *most natural development *Occam's Razor (4) check for regularity of sound change -since sound change is regular, the sound changes found in the reconstruction should apply to all cognate sets |
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total correspondence (12)
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if all the languages exhibit the same sound in some position, reconstruct that sound
EX: *[s__a] |
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most natural development (12)
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certain types of sound change are common while others almost never happen...so reconstruct according to the most natural sound change
- sound changes that are unnatural: * voiceless sounds become voiced between vowels and before voiced consonants *stops become fricatives between vowels * consonants become palatalized before front vowels * consonants become voiceless at the end of words * difficult consonant clusters are simplified * difficult consonants are made easier * oral vowels become nasalized before nasals * fricatives other than [h] become [h] * [h] deletes between vowels * clusters of vowels are broken up by consonants |
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occam's razor (12)
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given any pair of possible analyses, prefer the one which is simpler overall. Reconstruct the sound that requires fewer changes from the prototype
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logographic writing system (13)
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one character for each morpheme...cannot tell you how the word is pronounced
*EX: Chinese 1) pictographic: character tries to copy the shape of the word (character itself resembles the thing it's referring to) 2) ideographic: try to indicate the meaning of the word with the symbol 3) no name: use radicals to combine with other symbols to make new words |
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syllabic writing system (13)
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one letter for each syllable (either V or VC)
1) syllabary: *EX: Japanese or Chinese 2) Abugidas: a combination of syllabic and alphabetic writing systems *EX: Sandscript, Hindi |
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alphabetic writing system (13)
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one letter for each sound/phoneme
1) true alphabetic: if have letters for both vowel and consonant phonemes *EX: English 2) Abjad: only letters for consonant phonemes *EX: Arabic and Hebrew (traditional) |
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logographic writing system (13)
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one character for each morpheme...cannot tell you how the word is pronounced
*EX: Chinese 1) pictographic: character tries to copy the shape of the word (character itself resembles the thing it's referring to) 2) ideographic: try to indicate the meaning of the word with the symbol 3) no name: use radicals to combine with other symbols to make new words |
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syllabic writing system (13)
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one letter for each syllable (either V or VC)
1) syllabary: *EX: Japanese or Chinese 2) Abugidas: a combination of syllabic and alphabetic writing systems *EX: Sandscript, Hindi |
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alphabetic writing system (13)
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one letter for each sound/phoneme
1) true alphabetic: if have letters for both vowel and consonant phonemes *EX: English 2) Abjad: only letters for consonant phonemes *EX: Arabic and Hebrew (traditional) |
