Linguistics

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Binary opposition

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speaker and hearer

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• Footing

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o Where it is that your standing
o Link utterance of particular moments

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• Dramatic Metaphor

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o Forces us to think how people act differently when they are “on stage” – taking on different roles

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• Contextual cues

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o What’s going on in any situation

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• Lay vs. Technical

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o Lay: language patterns used to communicate in any informal way
o Technical language: language needed to complete a specific task

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Morphology

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Composition of words and morphemes

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Morphemes

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smallest meaningful unit of a word

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Syntax

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Grammatical rules that govern how a sentence is ordered

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Semantics

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Meaning

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Phonetic Alphabet

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o An alphabet of characteristics intended to represent specific sounds of speech

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Orthography

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o A method of representing the sounds of a language written or printed symbols
o Spelling (sound alike)

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Free Morpheme

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stands alone as an independent word

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Bound Morpheme

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Must be attached to another morpheme

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Base

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Free/bound to which morpheme can be added (stem)

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Root

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meaning - strip away all morphemes
KIND as an example... can have many affixes (meaning at the root)

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Affix

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o Take a bound morpheme and attach to the front or bank, or insert into the root

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Prefix

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front

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Suffix

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End

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Infix

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insert

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Inflection

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o Modifying existing words (tense, plurality), do not create a new word

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Derivation

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process by creating new words

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Simple and complext words

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simple = one morpheme (smallest meaningful sound/word)
complex = root plus affixes (one or more)

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How new words are made

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Derivation

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Functional Differentiation

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Interactions that differentiate linguistic codes
helps understand what is going on at that time

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Code Switching (5)

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Instrument of meta communicating linguistic analysis
o 1) Illocutionary clarity – action that is formed when talking/writing
o 2) Identify talk (stretches) – talk having a particular kind of work
o 3) Gives clues to meaning – what to expect
o 4) Social commentary – what is going on
o 5) Context for Bound Messages – Speech connected to something else

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Cultural Construction

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how reality and knowledge emerges

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function of joking

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cultural text - informative being developed

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Analyzing jokes

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o Infused meaning – social and cultural: what enables text to take place

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Jokes - Social

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 Social – what the individual and the relationship between Joker and Jokee … meanings that make a joke “alright”

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Jokes - Culture

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 Culture – what is inside the text that tells us about the culture and the relationship involved

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Jokes - Micro-sociological analysis

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 Micro-sociological analysis: taking a close look at a small piece of a really large cultural group

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Joking frame

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o “butt” of the joke a counterfeit character (passive)
o Social encounter  stimuli (laughing)
o Provides moral cover for immoral social act

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Speech Event

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o Activities directly governed by rules or norms for the use of speech

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Objectification

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meanings of our experience through objects

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How language accumulates, peserves, and transmits meanings (6)

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o 1) Face-to-face: saying what is going on in our mind: continuous, synchronized, reciprocal access
o 2) Forced Patterns: respond to the need to communicate (depending on communication patterns)
o 3) Typifies Experiences: process of translation – relate details to others and understand what has happened
o 4) Transcends here and now: (Linguistic objectification) help bridge reality zones – take these connections and relate to our everyday life… call home and understand with out being “here”
o 5) Transcends “everyday life” altogether: language to craft different realities
o 6) Semantic Fields (zones of meanings): vocabulary, grammar, classification schemes to differentiate themes… order our experiences

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Analyzing Realties

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Frame - doesn't have meaning until you give it a meaning
Natural - identify occurences of unguided; purely physical
Social - individuals are in control and manipulte

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Dramaturgy

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matters of context, relies on people agreeing on meaning

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performers

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speech events itself

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belief in parts

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person speaking, how well do they believe in what they are saying

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the mask (front)

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how speaker wants to identify self

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dramatic realization

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what does the speaker want us to know and how are they trying to be heard

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idealization

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present examples of best practices

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character maintenance

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remains in control of character he or she is playing

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Representation

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what is the message and how is it communicated

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mystification

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evidence of the speaker holding back information (back)

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Race

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o Major dimensions of humankind having basic differences (physical characteristics)

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Class

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o System of ordering a society based on social or economic status

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Ethnicity

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common, national cultural similtarities (birth/decent)

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taxonomic relationships

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x is a kind of y

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cognitive anthropology

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culture is viewed as a knowledge

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ethnographic semantics

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o Semantics because it deals with word meanings, ethnographic because the point of studying meaning isn’t to write a dictionary for second-language learners, but rather to learn about the view of the world that group of people has

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New ethnography

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o Learn about the view of the world that group of people has
o Ethnographies would be done in the same way so that their results could be compared

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Languaculture

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the missing "link" between language and culture
Langua - is about discourse, not just about words and sentences
Culture is about meaning that include, but go well beyond, what the dictionary and grammar offer

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Schmah

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View of the world that rests on the basic ironic premise that things aren't what they seem what they are is more worse and all you cand do is laugh it off
a humorous exchange growing out the moment that is based on negative portrayal of the other
a deception designed to attain some instrumental end
things are not what they seem, what they are is bad, but the fact that the difference exists is not to be taken seriously

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Rich Points

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the kind of moment in which things "go wrong" in a speech situation (dependent on frame)

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Discourse

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Emphasizes understanding of how authority and power are distributed and negotiated in verbal exchanges

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Competence

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the ability of a speaker to produce grammatical sentences in his or her native language

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Garfinkeling

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creating a rich point to see if people have the "say what?" reaction that is expected

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Turn taking

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when a topic is established, one person has to get and hold the floor while he or she talks, then a transition is made to another person, and so on, important in ethno-methods

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Topic

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every body has agreed upon that it's a good idea to talk about

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Speech acts

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lets you talk about what language is doing

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Transcripts

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Evidence that the prose use to make a case for the frames they build
natural expereiments, partial records of things that occurred "out there" in the world whose rich points you want to account for the framers

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Patterns

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a combination of qualities, acts, tendencies, forming a consistent or characteristics arrangements

an original or model consideration for or deserving of imitations

anything fashioned or designed to serve as a model or guide for something to be made

an examples, instance, sample, or specimen

to make or fashion after or according to a pattern

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Coherence

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The weave that pulls frames together into ever more elaborate ideas about the new languaculture, ideas that tantalize you with that elusive "feel" for the people you're trying to understand

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Issues

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Rich points that you need to build frames for, and the frames carry you into a sophisticated appreciation of where you are and who you're talking with that travels well beyond any particular speech act

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Nation

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Is a group of people who see themselves as having a shared history, a shared language, a common bond that defines many aspects of who they are and what they do

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State

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political unite, something with citizens who live inside or borders and orient to the same authorities and institutions

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Nonverbal communication

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The process of transmitting messages without spoken word

happiness, grief, surprised, anger, fear

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Proxemics

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the study of how people perceive the use space

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Kinesics

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The study of body movements, facial expressions, and gestures

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Categories of gestures

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Emblems - or gestures with direct verbal translations, such as a wave goodbye

illustrators - or gestures the depict or illustrate what is said verbally, such as turning an imaginary steering wheel while talking about driving

affect displays - or gestures that convey emotion, such as smiles or frowns

regulators - or gestures that control or coordinate interaction such as indicating that it's someone else's turn to talk during conversation

adapters - or gestures that facilitate release of body tensions, such as the nervous foot shuffling of people who would probably rather leave

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Cross-cultural differences in gesture

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o Okay sign in American, in japan means money, france means something is worthless, some parts of germany may be taken as an insult

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Cross-cultural facial expressions

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Czech - smiling too much shows being "american"
Somethings looking at the speakers is considered rude

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paralanguage

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alongside of language
George Trager
Describe the sounds that accompany speech but that are not directly part of language

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Voice quality

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Loudness, pitch, and speed of speaking, whispering, whinning, breathy voice

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Voice gestures

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Mhm, shhh, tsk-tsk, clucking, hissing, or grunting sorts of sounds

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Ideophones

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Sounds that represent other sounds, in the category of paralanguage

bam, bow, splat

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Language Change

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external change refers to the kinds of changes that occur because of language contact and borrowing between speakers of different languages

internal change refers to the kinds of changes that occur because of the way speakers of a language gradually modify their language over time

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Dialects and related dialects

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Varieties of language
related dialects - are dialects that have developed from a single parent language

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Protolanguage

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ancient language where all language is derived from

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Pidgins and Creoles

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Pidgin: a language that has developed, through contact, from two unrelated languages

Creoles: a complete language that has emerged out of a pidgin

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Bilingualism

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the ability to speak two languages

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Code Switching

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is the term we use to describe using more than one variety of language

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Cognates

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sets of words in related languages that can be shown to have descended from a common ancestral languages; cognates have similar meanings, and they show regular sound correspondences

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Diglossia

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the situation where two (or more) varieties of the same language are used by speakers in different settings

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Language isolate

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language that cannot be classified into any language family

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Lexifer language

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language that contributes the majority of words to a pidgin or a creole

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Reanalysis

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Process of analyzing (or perhaps even mis-analyzing) unfamiliar words into a familiar-looking components that assigning familiar meaning to those components, even if those components have no meaning or function in the original words

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Voicing

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The phonetic process in which the manner of pronunciation is changed to make sound voiced

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Mass comparison

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Technique in which lists of words from large numbers of langauges are compared all at once to determine that languages are related rather than using the slow, painstaking reconstruction of protolanguages from languages already known to be related

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Macrofamilies

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Sets of language families that appear to have descended from a common ancient language

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Official language

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a language designated as official by government policy

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Majority Rule Strategy

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In historical reconstruction, the assumption that, if there is no phonetically plausible reason to choose a particular sound for reconstruction, then the choice should be based on whichever sound appears most frequently in the correspondence set

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Language extinction

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the situation in which there are no more speakers of a particular language

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Language revitalization

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the attempt to assist people in maintaining endangered languages

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marking

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the linguistic phenomenon of deriving a non-neutral in a language and that is derived from neutral or a base form