Linguistic Anthropology Test 2

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Phonology

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a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. It is concerned with the abstract, grammatical characterization of systems of sounds or signs.

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Phonetics

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a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech, or—in the case of sign languages—the equivalent aspects of sign.It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs (phones): their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status

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phone

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a unit of speech sound; any speech sound or gesture considered as a physical event without regard to its place in the phonology of a language:

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allophone

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is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds (or phones) used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language.

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phoneme

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any of the perceptually distinct units of sound in a specified language that distinguish one word from another; for example p, b, d, and t in the English words pad, pat, bad, and bat.

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phonetic transcription

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a transcription intended to represent each distinct speech sound with a separate symbol

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inadequacy of existing alphabets vs. IPA

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There are not letters for each sound made - nor do the correlate across various languages. IPA hopes to take individual sounds and assign them to a correlating symbol to bridge the gap; however, it is frequently hard to understand if one is not a linguistic or learns IPA.

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problems faced in doing phonetic transcription

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1. leaves out much of the context and paralinguistic features such as gesture, intonation,

2. misinterpretation of grammar and syntax

3. subconsciously relating to a language that is most familiar to one

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consonants vs. vowels

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consonants are sounds produced with a partial closure of the vocal tract and vowels are pronounced with an open vocal tract

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Assimilation

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is an abstract concept to describe sounds that change in certain ways in proximity to one another

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Phonetics vs Phonemics

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Phonetics studies the sounds we actually produce in speech. Phonemics studies the way we understand those sounds

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etic vs. emic

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both refer to two kinds of field research done and viewpoints obtained. The emic approach investigates how local people think and Etic knowledge refers to generalizations about human behavior that are considered universally true, and commonly links cultural practices to factors of interest to the researcher

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voiced vs. unvoiced consonants

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Unvoiced is when there is not a vibration of the vocal cords. Voiced is when the vocal cords vibrate

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back vs. front vowels

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back vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth. front vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far in front as possible in the mouth

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elision

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the omission of a sound or syllable when speaking

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neutralized

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Phonemes that are contrastive in certain environments may not be contrastive in all environments. In the environments where they do not contrast, the contrast is said to be neutralized

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morphology

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the identification, analysis, and description of the structure of a given language's morphemesand other linguistic units, such as root words, affixes, parts of speech, intonations and stresses, or implied context

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morphemes

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the smallest grammatical unit in a language. In other words, it is the smallest meaningful unit of a language

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Word Classes

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All words belong to categories called word classes (or parts of speech) according to the part they play in a sentence

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free vs. bounded morphemes

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a bound morpheme is a morpheme that appears only as part of a larger word; a free or unbound morpheme is one that can stand alone

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affix

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a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word

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prefixes

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affix at the beginning of a word

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suffix

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affix at the end of a word

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infix

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affix in the middle of a word

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derivation

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the formation of a new word or inflectable stem from another word or stem. It typically occurs by the addition of an affix. The derived word is often of a different word class from the original. It may thus take the inflectional affixes of the new word class.

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inflection

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the modification of a word to express different grammatical categories such as tense, mood, voice,aspect, person, number, gender and case. The inflection of verbs is also called conjugation, and the inflection of nouns, adjectives and pronouns is also called declension.

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Compounding

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Compounding or composition is the process of word formation that creates compound lexemes (the other word-formation process' being derivation).

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Syntax

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linguistic structure above the word level (e.g. how sentences are formed). It refers both to particular sets of rules, and also to the academic field that studies those rules

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paradigmatic vs. syntagmatic

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para is about elements that could be swapped in and out and syn is about the relationship between units in an utterance.

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a couple of rules of English word order

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subject and then verb for sentences

verbs agreeing in number and tense

frequency of verb goes before verbs

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icon

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the simplest since it is a pattern that physically resembles what it `stands for'.

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index

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some sensory feature, A, (directly visible, audible, smellable, etc) that correlates with and thus implies or `points to' B

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symbol

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Symbols take the form of words, sounds, gestures, or visual images and are used to convey ideas and beliefs

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Semantics

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a sub discipline of linguistics which focuses on the study of meaning. Semantics tries to understand what meaning is as an element of language and how it is constructed by language as well as interpreted, obscured and negotiated by speakers and listeners of language.[1]

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Pragmatics

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a subfield of linguistics and semiotics that studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning.

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Speech Acts

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an utterance that has performative function in language and communication. Speech acts are commonly taken to include such acts as promising, ordering, greeting, warning, inviting and congratulating

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Speech Event

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is an event defined by the speech occurring in it—a lecture, for example—so that a dinner is not a speech event, but a speech situation, a situation in which speech may or may not occur

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Utterance

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a natural unit of speech bounded by breaths or pauses

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representative speech acts

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commits the speaker to the truth of an expressed proposition. It represents the speaker’s belief of something that can be evaluated to be true or false. ex. “I suspect the patient has pancreatitis.” then this represents the doctor’s own proposition/belief about what the disease might be

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directive speech acts

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speech acts that are to cause the hearer to take a particular action, e.g. requests, commands and advice

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commissive speech acts

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speech acts that commit a speaker to some future action, e.g. promises and oaths

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expressive speech acts

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when a speaker expresses his or her psychological state to the listener. Typical cases are when the speaker thanks, apologizes, or welcomes the listener.

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declarative speech acts

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statements that bring about a change in status or condition to an object by virtue of the statement itself. For example, a statement declaring war or a statement that someone is fired.

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constative vs. performative

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According to him, an utterance is constative if it describes or reports some state of affairs such that one could say its correspondence with the facts is either true or false. Performatives, on the other hand, "do not 'describe' or 'report' or constate anything at all, are not 'true' or 'false.' . .

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features of pragmatics

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* the speaker's main intention in expressing these utterances,
* the level of directness, and
* the strategies used by the speaker to convey his message.

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implicature

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suggested in an utterance, even though neither expressed nor strictly implied (that is, entailed) by the utterance.

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implicature example

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the sentence "Mary had a baby and got married" strongly suggests that Mary had the baby before the wedding, but the sentence would still bestrictly true if Mary had her baby after she got married

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deixis

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refers to words and phrases that cannot be fully understood without additional contextual information.

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deixis example

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To each his own - gender of his is a deixis

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local reference

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something close by usually in same sentence ex the pronoun who would have a local deferent on boy in the the boy who cried wolf - because boy is really close to it

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turn taking

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usually considered to follow a simple set of rules, enacted through a perhaps more complicated system of signals. The most significant aspect of the turn-taking process is that, in most cases, it proceeds in a very smooth fashion. Speakers signal to each other that they wish to either yield or take the turn through syntactic, pragmatic, and prosodic means.

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Nonverbal communication

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is the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless (mostly visual) cues between people

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false assumptions about nonverbal communication

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1. you can read a person like a book

2. Nonverbal behavior is genuine, natural, spontaneous

3. Nonverbal cues are culturally universal

4. You can spot a liar based on his/her nonverbal cues

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paralanguage

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the nonlexical component of communication by speech, for example intonation, pitch and speed of speaking, hesitation noises, gesture, and facial expression.

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kinesics

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is the interpretation of body motion communication such as facial expressions and gestures — that is, nonverbal behavior related to movement of any part of the body or the body as a whole.

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proxemics

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is one of several subcategories of the study of nonverbal communication. Prominent other subcategories include haptics (touch), kinesics (body movement), vocalics (paralanguage), and chronemics (structure of time).

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four distance zones

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intimate distance - ranging from skin contact to 18 inches

personal distance - ranging from 18 inches to 4 feet

public distance - extending outward from 12 feet

social distance - ranging from 4 to 12 feet

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haptics

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the study of touching

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chronemics

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is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. The way that one perceives and values time, structures time and reacts to time frames communication.

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artifacts

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its a remnant held over time

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whistle language

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use whistling to emulate speech and facilitate communication. A whistled language is a system of whistled communication which allows fluent whistlers to transmit and comprehend a potentially unlimited number of messages over long distances.

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drum language

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Congo language uses rhythm to derive meaning

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gesture-calls vs. language as analog vs. digital

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gesture-calls not using voice analog predictiable (volume gestures calls) universal digital language - language, which is not arbitrary

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characteristics of sign language

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1. Handshape
2. Location
3. Movement
4. Orientation (palm orientation)

A fifth parameter that is often added to this list is

5. "Facial Expressions" and/or "Non-manual Markers."

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gesticulations

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gesture, especially a dramatic one, used instead of speaking or to emphasize one's words.

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intonation

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variation of spoken pitch that is not used to distinguish words

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quotable vocalizations

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can be thought of as "almost-words." They include sounds such as "m-hm" and "uh-uh". Like words, they carry well-defined meanings with them, are well under our voluntary control and must be learned through cultural experience.

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quotable gestures

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conventional gestures that function like words (digital) but no auditory component (physical); resembling sign language

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types of narratives or discourse (stories)

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poems fiction proverbs legions myth speeches life histories

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several functions language creativity with language

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1. expressing observation

2. expressing thoughts

3. expressing feelings

4. expressing needs

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conduit metaphor

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a dominant class of figurative expressions used when discussing communication itself (metalanguage). It operates whenever people speak or write as if they "insert" their mental contents (feelings, meanings, thoughts, concepts, etc.) into "containers" (words, phrases, sentences, etc.) whose contents are then "extracted" by listeners and readers

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metaphor & metonymy

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Metaphor (drawing a similarity between two things) and metonymy (drawing a contiguity between two things) are two fundamental opposite poles along which a discourse with human language is developed.

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target-source function of metaphor

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Concrete source leads to the abstract metaphor

- Love is war - Kill it

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pictographs

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A picture representing a word, phrase, or idea, especially one used in early writing systems

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ideographs

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a graphic character that indicates the meaning of a thing without indicating the sounds used to say it; "Chinese characters are ideograms"

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syllabary

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a set of written characters representing syllables and (in some languages or stages of writing) serving the purpose of an alphabet.

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Unique History of the Alphabet

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The Phoenician script was the first phonemic script and was the ancestor of modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin, Cyrillic and Hebrew.[1][2] According to a terminology introduced by Peter T. Daniels, an "alphabet" in the narrow sense is one that represents both vowels and consonants as letters equally. The first "true alphabet" in this sense was the Greek alphabet,[3][4] which was developed on the basis of the earlier Phoenician alphabet. In other alphabetic scripts, such as the original Phoenician, Hebrew or Arabic, letters predominantly or exclusively represent only consonants; such a script is also called an abjad. A third type, called abugida or alphasyllabary, is one where vowels are shown by diacritics or modifications of consonantal base letters, as in Devanagari and other South Asian scripts.

There are dozens of alphabets in use today, the most popular being the Latin alphabet[5] (which was derived from the Greek). Many languages use modified forms of the Latin alphabet, with additional letters formed using diacritical marks. While most alphabets have letters composed of lines (linear writing), there are also exceptions such as the alphabets used in Braille, fingerspelling, and Morse code.

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Myths about Literacy

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1. people that are literate are more intelligent

2. countries that can read are superior

3. all people learn how to read the same

4. people today are less literate than their parents

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positive and negative effects of literacy

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Positive: Propaganda - Articulate Ideas - Spread Ideas quickly - participate in modern economy - share ideas over time- preserve culture and facts

Negative: lies - spread propaganda - subjegate people - misinterpretation

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standardization

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The process by which conventional forms of a language are established and maintained.

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standard vs vernacular

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standard : system state recognizes as being the 'official' way to speak - vernacular : the language or dialect spoken by the ordinary people in a particular country or region.

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partial writing and full writing

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partial writing - a system that can only convey some thought and full writing conveys all thoughts and actions

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Rebus

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means using existing symbols, such as pictograms, purely for their sounds regardless of their meaning, to represent new words.

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grapheme

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the smallest unit used in describing the writing system of a language, originally coined by analogy with the phoneme of spoken languages.

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Frame

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one cannot understand the meaning of a single word without access to all the essential knowledge that relates to that word.

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Lexeme

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is a unit of lexical meaning that exists regardless of the number of inflectional endings it may have or the number of words it may contain. It is a basic unit of meaning, and the headwords of a dictionary are all lexemes.[1] Put more technically, a lexeme is an abstract unit of morphological analysis inlinguistics, that roughly corresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word

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Prototype theory

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suggests that many mental concepts we have are really prototypes. [...] (It) has been useful in investigations into how concepts are formed, [...] and to what extent certain concepts can be considered universal or specific to certain cultures / languages

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approaches or dimensions to meaning

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Words and symbols have multiple meanings context changes meaning - meanings are entities or things - are they objective in the outside world?

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Symbolic Anthropology

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he study of cultural symbols and how those symbols can be interpreted to better understand a particular society

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Structuralist Linguistics

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stressed examining language as a static system of interconnected units. He is thus known as a father of modern linguistics for bringing about the shift from diachronic (historical) to synchronic (non-historical) analysis

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Criticism to "target-source function of metaphor" by Lacoff and Johnson

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does not incorporate desired connections can be misinterpreted

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Robbins Burling's article non verbal communication

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Smiles, Winks, and Words

To understand the emergence of language, we need to understand where it fits among the many other ways that humans communicate (audible, visible, olfacory, and tactile)

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aims of the article by Abu-Lughod

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to show how metaphor and song helps convey further meaning

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Conduit Metaphor Example

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That idea just came to me out of the blue.

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denotation (reference) and connotation (sense)

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The denotation of a concept is the actual collection of entities that do fall under it. Thus the connotation of bachelor is perhaps "unmarried adult male human" and its denotation is all the bachelors in the world

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Marxists

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Conflict approach symbolism behind identity perpetuated by an idea - you do not question textbook

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social constructivism

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meaning institutionalized social interaction

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aims of the article by Abu-Lughod

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to report how creative forms are needed to convey full array of emotions or sentiments

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Honor Code

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public self is based on honor you show no weekness

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types of sentiments expressed in ghinnawa

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sadness upset traj resistance

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social context for Bedouin women’s poetry

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displays of unchecked emotions weaken the group’s solidarity, so they use poetry to express such strong feelings as sadness, love and anger or to convey feelings that might be difficult to express in everyday life.

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a few examples of common metaphors used by Bedouin women

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everything death sadness disappointment entertainment

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types of written language

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alphabet and 2 d images

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literacy practices

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schedule reading times - starting out with smaller words

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inclusivists vs. exclusivists

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would include all things and exclusivists only logographic and alphabetic