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60 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Linguistic Context |
what has been said in the conversation prior to the utterance being interpreted -pronouns (he, it_ and responses like 'yes' and 'no' depend on prior context |
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Situational Context |
the context provided by the general situation
-important in face-to-face communication -what is that? the mayor. rachel is tall (situational context) |
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Social Context |
knowledge of the social roles and relationships between the participants in a conversation -includes knowing what is appropriate to say in certain situations -knowledge of both of these things helps provide context to utterances --wouldn't say 'ya whatever' to the judge who is sentencing you |
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Conversational Maxims |
Quality, Quantity, Manner, Relevance |
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Maxim of Quality |
do not say what you believe to be false do not say that for which you lack evidence -conversations will not be successful if ppl spread falsehoods -good evidence may vary by situational or social context |
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Maxim of Relevance |
Be relevant -listeners STRONGLY assume speakers are adhering to this maxim -allows us to make inferences |
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Maxim of Quantity |
-make your contribution as informative as required -do not make your contribution more informative than is required -amnt of detail required depends on situation |
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Maxim of Manner |
-avoid obscurity, avoid ambiguity, be brief, be orderly --how info is presented, not what info is presented -listeners expect events to be retold in chronological order |
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Implication |
Implying is sending a message without saying directly -looking at watch implies lets hurry up |
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Inference |
inference is a reasonable conclusion based on the set of circumstances -one must infer the message of the implication -one can infer without anyone implying anything --wet roads might lead you to infer that it raining |
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Implicature |
information suggested by, but not expressly contained in or entailed by, an utterance -drawn by considering a wide range of info regarding the context, society and other useful things |
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Kinship Terms |
method for linguistic anthropologists to determine cultural ideals in a given language -in English, kinship terms are organized by --gender (mother/father, sister/brother_ --generation( mother, grandmother) --lineage (mother-son, aunt, nephew_ --blood vs marriage relations |
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Curse Words |
reflect a society's values |
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Communicative Competence |
ability to interact and communicate according to cultural norms
-politeness, speaker roles, turn-taking rules, greetings |
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Politeness |
expected of normative linguistic strategies culturally agreed-upon to be appropriate in a given situation
--direct vs indirect --close the door vs. would you mind closing the door T/V: t when you are talking to someone you are confortable with v when showing respect, formality, or there is a power differential -honorifics |
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Face Theory |
theory of politeness based on positive and negative face
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Face Threatening Acts (FTAs) |
speech acts that may threaten one's face |
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Positive Face |
desire to be liked and valued by others |
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Negative Face |
desire to be free from imposition and restraint |
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Positive Politeness |
strategy to accommodate one's desire to be liked by others --i know you packed an extra pen for your best friend |
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Negative Politeness |
strategy to accommodate one's desire to not be bothered or have one's independence impeded upon --you wouldn't happen to have a spare pen, would you? |
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Bald on record FTAs |
no politeness or mitigation strategy is used -give me a pen |
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Off-record FTA |
indirect speech acts that avoid making explicit impositions on hearer --I can't believe I forgot to bring my pen! |
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Dialects |
when a group of people exhibit systematic differences from another group of people, they are said to be speaking different dialects -distinction between language and a dialect is historical and political --most languages will have a standard dialect ---reflects the preferences of groups in positions of power in the society |
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Languages |
-system of communication characterized by a set of rules, and spoken by a group of speakers -languages may have different varieties spoken by different groups of people |
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Mutual Intelligibility |
if speakers of different dialects can understand each other, they are mutually intelligible -if dialects are mutually intelligible, they are usually considered to be part of the same language |
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Accent |
the phonological patterning of a dialect -every dialect has an accent, although we only hear the accents of other dialects --due to habituatioin |
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Prestige |
attitudes towards different dialects simply reflect the different social status (prestige) of different groups of speakers --if you think speakers of a dialect sound smart/rude/lazy its bc you think the group associated with it has that quality |
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Isogloss |
boundary on a dialect map
--distinguish language varieties according to some characteristic --when isoglosses coincide, you are probably dealing with different dialects |
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Social Influences on Variation |
social factors affect speech through a subconscious desire to express solidarity with a certain group -alternatively, speakers may speak differently as a rejection of the values of characteristics of antoher group |
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Socioeconomic Variation |
rich and poor ppl have fairly different ways of speaking in the same society --used as a way to categorize and separate ppl on the basis of socioeconomic status |
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Age Variation |
young speakers usually lead linguistic innovation ---desire to be diff from older generation |
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Gender Variation |
language varies as a function of gender -dependent on biological sex -socially constructed, performative difference --not in term of syntax |
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Ethnic Variation |
ethnic groups usually have non-standard dialects --powerful marker of group belonging, telling ppl outside and inside that you are part of that group --acceptance of dominant groups dialects |
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Language Contact |
contact of two or more languages in a society -through media or through social contact --most countries have significant numbers of speakers of multiple languages |
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Borrowing |
in contact situations, common for one language to borrow from another --most common form of borrowing is lexical borrowing, the borrowing of words --structural is also possible but less likely -called loan words --languages tend to borrow words for new concepts -loanwords adapted to the phonology of the borrowing language |
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Adstratal Languages |
when two languages have equal prestige
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Substratum Language |
the language of the less dominant group
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Supertratum Language |
the language with the higher prestige
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Outcomes of Contact |
-convergence occurs when two languages take on characteristic of each other and become more similar -language shift can occur where one language moves towards the characteristics of another (sub/sup) relationship -language shift can result in language death --when community abandons native language in favor of another language |
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Pidgin Languages |
groups of ppl who speak many languages need to communicate, a pidgin is established --have grammar and rules, however considerably simpler than full languages |
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Creole Languages |
arise when children are born into pidgin languages -kids nativize the language and impose a greater degree of order and structure on the language --full fledged language may arise from pidgin |
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Multilingualism |
society as a whole features multiple languages |
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Code Switching |
use of two or more languages in the same utterance --spanglish --relies on all parties knowing all the languages -communicative purpose, social or political, facilitate communication |
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Diglossia |
when speakers use different languages i different social settings -englsish at school, russian at home |
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Characteristics of Pidgins |
have simpler phonological structure --more restriced phonotactic constraints --frequently lack affixes or inflectional morphmes --morphologically simple |
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Characteristics of Creoles |
depend on source of language and pidgin precedeing it --tend to exhibit simple morphological systems --no longer classifies as a simple language though --depend more on additional words to provide grammatical info |
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Language Relatedness |
overtime, dialects may diverge to the point that they become different languages -results in common ancestor -words are semantically and phonologically similar across two languages, the language may be relates |
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Cognates |
words with similar form and meaning that come from the same source are called cognates
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Sound Change and Regularity |
Phonological change change affects distribution of allophones and phonemes and may result in loss of phonemes -english didnt have /v/ only /f/ -phonological change almost always regular --usually changes in all words in a lexicon --eventually spreads to whole language |
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Analogy and Morphological Change |
refers to changes in morphology of language, does not occur across the whole system -analogy: irregular forms are made more similar to more common forms -forms become common bc many words have them |
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Semantic Extension |
going from the specific to general -coke can come to mean all soft drinks |
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Semantic Reduction |
going from general to specific -worm used to mean bug |
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Internal Reconstruction |
seeks to investigate the previous states of a single language |
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Comparative Reconstruction |
seeks to compare langauges in order to infer characteristics of their common ancestor -need cognates from related lanugages -determine which sounds correspond to each other in languages -determine which sound might have plausibly led to different sounds in each language |
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Theories of language Acquisition |
Theories proposed to explain how children are able to acquire such complicated systems |
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Innateness Hypothesis |
suggests humans are innately predisposed to acquire language
-born with structural characteristics known as universal grammar -language acquisition relies on innate human abilities -enough to acquire sign language as well - |
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Imitation Theory |
-children learn a language by memorizing words and sentences
-imitation forms at least some part of acquisition -explains why children learn language of their enviornment -not xplain why children make erros -also cannot account for how chilren are able to produce and understand new utterances |
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Active Construction of Grammar Theories |
suggest children make up their own grammatical rules -based on patterns they observe in language environment -analyze the rule and implement it in their own speech - overgeneralization like goed -ruled can be modified and fine tuned as child gets older --grammar will approach correct adult grammar |
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Connectionist Theories |
-suggest language is acquired by developing neural connections in the brain -language reinforced by experiences language -type of connections and their strengths end up reflecting statistical information about the co-occurrence of linguistic elements - |
