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192 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
science
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body of knowledge, unified insights, collection of theories
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theory
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set of principles supported by evidence
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scientific method
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1)observaion
2)question 3)hypothesis 4)experimentation 5)conclusion |
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observation
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observe natural world
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hypothesis
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possible explanations (testable and falsifiable)
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deduction
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general -> specific
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induction
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specific -> general
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experimentation
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testing of hypothesis
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naturalistic science
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-obs. of natural world under natural conditions
-basis of biology -descriptive, observation |
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experimental science
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-artifically contrive situations to test hypotheses
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ethics
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-beliefs of right and wrong
-moral judgements and justifications |
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deontological
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-duty-based ethics, based on acts
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utilitarian
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-focus on consequences
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Lamark
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theory that said new trait arrives when it is needed
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Mendel
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-discovered pattern of inheritance through experiments with breeding plants
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dominant trait
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masks the other trait
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recessive trait
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masked by the other trait
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phenotype
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what is seen
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genotype
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coding (ex. SS, Ss, sS, ss)
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chromosomes
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-DNA is packaged
-genes control traits -23 pairs of 2 in humans |
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diploid
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-2N
-2 copies of each gene |
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haploid
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-N
-1 copy of each gene -found in human gametes |
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somatic cell
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body cell
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karyotype
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visiualize chromosomes
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autosomal chromosomes
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everything but sex chromosomes
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sex chromosomes
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x or y
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Klinefelter Syndrome
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-XXY
-male carrier |
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Turner Syndrome
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-XO
-female carrier |
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Y chromosome
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-its presence determines sex
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SRY protein
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-gene on Y chromosome
-testes determining factor |
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double helix
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-2 stranded backbone
-base pairing of phosphates: - A&T - G&C |
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DNA polymerase
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-enzyme that peels apart and adds new nucleotides
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gene
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-1 segment of DNA
-directs production of 1 protein |
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protein
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-string of 20 amino acids
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mRNA
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-molecule that travels between DNA and protein
-nucleic acid -single-stranded -U instead of T |
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transcription
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-DNA unwound
-polymerase directs prodcution of RNA copy using 1 strand of DNA -RNA molecule released |
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mutation
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-change in DNA sequence
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additions/deletions
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-cause frameshifts in DNA sequence
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substitution
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-1 nucleotide produced instead of the other
-aka pt. mutation |
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silent mutation
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mutation that makes no difference in DNA sequence
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restriction enzymes
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-allow DNA to be cut and put back together
-come from bacteria -cuts DNA at either blunt or sticky ends |
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genomes
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all DNA in a cell
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comparitive genomics
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-comparing genomes of different organisms together
-identify important genes -classification of organisms |
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functional genomics
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-locate genes and deduce function based on similarities w/ other genes
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DNA fingerprinting
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-crime investigation
-paternatity tests -identifying relation |
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RFLP
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Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
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evolution
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process of lasting change over time in biological populations
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Lamark
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-1st proposal of change over time
-proposed adaptation and aquired traits |
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adaptation
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organism's change in response to its enviornment, tries to improve chance for survival
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aquired trait
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develop new traits that can be passed down into offspring
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Reverend Paley
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structure so perfectly designed, only be made by designer
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Lyndell
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geological forces operating, earth changing over time
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Cuvier
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-examined fossils
-proposal of extinction -several rounds of creation |
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Darwin
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-modern theory of evolution
-"Origin of Species" - 1859 |
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branching descent
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species today derived from ancient species
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natural selection
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parents w/ traits that improve survival and reproduction will have more offspring, skews population to those traits
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mimicry
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-evidence for Natural Selection
-1 species looks like another to protect itself -ex. coral snake/king snake; viceroy/monarch |
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industrial melanism
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-pollution caused by industry change environment and organisms change in response
-ex. pepper moths on trees |
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disease resistance
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-evidence of natural selection
-ex. sickle cell anemia = resistance to malaria |
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homologies
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-evidence for branching descent
-similarity implying shared ancestors -anatomical/genetic |
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vestigal structures
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-found in an organism, don't seem to have a function
-ex. eyes in fish that live in dark, human tailbone |
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convergance
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-evidence for branching descent
-similar structures that have developed independantly in unrelated structures because of pressures of enviornment |
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fossil record
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-evidence of branching descent
-progression from simple to complex organisms |
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genetic drift
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sudden decrease in population and randomly some alleles more represented in survivors
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speciation
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-production of new species
-barrier in reproduction (ie geographic barrier, different mating seasons) -fertile offspring never produced (ie sperm never enters egg, chromosomes don't match up) |
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species
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population of inter-breeding organisms that are reproductively isolated
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Bible-based creationism
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-literal interpretation of Genesis 1&2
-6 24 hour days -anti-science (many are) |
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Intelligent Design creationism
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-irreducible complexity (system will only function if all parts are present and functioning)
-can't evolve in Darwin's piece-like way b/c all of the parts are needed all of the time -can't be tested/falsified |
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Theistic Evolution
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-not literal interpretation of Genesis 1&2 - story to convey basic truths
-evolution is process God chose to use |
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microevolution
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-could explain small variation between species
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macroevolution
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-major jumps (ie monkey to man, etc.)
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systematics
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-comparative biology
-determining relatedness of organisms -identify similarities -group organisms -naming system |
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taxonomy
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-naming/classifying organisms
-similarities/differences |
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morphology
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-identification based on shape/appearance
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embryology
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-identification based on development
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classical method of deducing evolutionary relationships
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-look at evidence, make phylogenetic tree
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cladistics
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-determines branching system
-construct cladogram -look at derived traits in living organisms -will share ancestoral traits |
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procaryotes
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-like bacteria
-unicellular -small -plasma membrane and cell wall -no internal membrane -asexual reproduction -plasmids |
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eucaryotes
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-everything not procaryote
-unicellular or multicellular -large -cytoskeleton -internal and external membranes -organelles -sometimes have cell wall -sexual or asexual -thought to evolve from procaryote |
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plasmid
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small, circular piece of DNA
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cytoskeleton
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shape, movement, organizes organelles
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organelle
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-mitochondria, golgi apparatus, etc.
-internal membranes |
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Kingdom Archaea
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-procaryotic, unicellular
-organisms all live in extreme enviornments |
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Domain Eukarya/Kingdom Protista
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-multicellular
-asexual -photosynthetic -ingest other organisms -some non-motile, some sillia, some psuedopods, some flagella |
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Domain Eukarya/Kingdom Plantae
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-usually multicellular
-photosynthetic -non-motile -have cell wall -3 types: alge, bryophytes, vascular plants -sexually reproduce |
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alge
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-aquatic
-photosynthetic -no vascular system -some cellular specialization |
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bryophytes
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-mosses, etc.
-moist enviornment -no vascular system -gametes must be carried by water -low to the ground -all cells are photosynthetic |
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vascular plants
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-have vascular system/can transport water/nutrients
-taller -cellular specialization |
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Domain Eukarya/Kingdom Mycota
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-fungus
-unicellular or multicellular -produce spores -asexual/sexual reproduction -ability to secrete digestive enzymes and absorb smaller nutrients into cells -mostly non-motile -cell wall -some parasitic |
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Domain Eukarya/Kingdom Animalia
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-very diverse
-multicelluar -sexual reproduction -nutrition through ingestion -general derived characteristics |
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distinct germ layers
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-specialization of cells at embryotic stage
-ectoderm (nervous tissue, skin) -endoderm (intestinal tract, apendages of intestinal) -mesoderm (muscle and bone) |
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symmetry
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-radial symmetry - symmetry around a central point
-asymmetry - no symmetry -bilateral symmetry - symmetry across middle |
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body cavity
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-room for expandable organs
-protection for internal organs -psuedocoelom, coelom, none |
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psuedocoelom
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-semi-body cavity
-not covered by mesoderm on all sides |
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coelom
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-mesoderm on all sides of body cavity
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where mouth develops
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-protostomes/deuterostomes
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protostome
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-mouth 1st
-where cells start to move inward becomes mouth |
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deuterostome
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-secondary mouth
-wherre cells start to move inward becomes anus -humans |
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segmentation
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-important for movement and development
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porifera
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-phyla
-sponges -no derived traits |
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cnidaria
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-phyla
-hydra, jellyfish, etc. -derived traits: -radial symmetry - 2 germ layers (ecto/endo) -polyp/medusa |
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platyhelminthes
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- phyla
-flat worms, tapeworms, etc. -derived traits: -3 germ layers -tissue specialization -specific reproductive tissue -bilateral symmetry |
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nematoda
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-round worms
-derived traits: all above + -true body cavity -protostome |
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annelida
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-earthworm
-derived traits: all above + -segmentation |
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chordata
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-3 subphyla:
-lancet -tunicate -vertabrata |
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subphyla vertabrata
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-body cavity
-deuterostome -notocord -gill slits |
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order:primates
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-large, front-facing eyes
-binocular vision -limbs with opposable thumbs |
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family: hominidae
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-humans, all extinct hominids
-bipedalism (walk on 2 feet) |
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hominid
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-lost wrist ridges/locking elbows
-develped spongey substance in leg -forward facing toes -parallel feet |
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genus: ardipithecus
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-oldest, chimp traits
-4.5 mill. years ago |
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genus: australopitheus
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-Lucy
-2.5-4.5 mill. years ago |
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genus: homo
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-homoergaster - 1.5 mill. years ago, close to humans
-homo erectus - 50,000 yrs. ago -homo sapien - our moders species |
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multi-regional theory
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-everything since homo ergaster is part of homo sapien
-slow blending of all regions together |
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replacement theory
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-homo sapiens coming to be in Africa
-migrate and out compete every other genus |
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population
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-individuals in 1 geographical area that interbreed
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Hardy-Weinberg equation
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-used to deduce allelic frequencies from phenotypic frequencies
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equilibrium
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population where frequency of alleles is consistant over time
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innate behavior
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-genetically encoded
-directly influenced by natural selection -ex. escape response, threat response, mating rituals |
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annual internal clock
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-seasonal changes
-migration, mating, hibernation |
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daily internal clock
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-circadian rhythm
-foraging, sleep |
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learned behavior
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-not genetically encoded
-not directly influenced by natural selection -aquired through experience after birth -ex. how to read, speaking, using tools |
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asexual reproduction
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-benefits: passing on 100% of genetic makeup, don't have to find mate
-costs: if enviornment changes, no hope of change/mutation |
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sexual reproduction
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-benefits: offspring better adapted than parents, parental investment higher
-costs: expend more energy, only pass on 50% of genetic makeup |
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monogamy
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-strong parental investment
-mate for life |
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polygyny
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-single male w/ many femals
-competition w/in males |
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polyandry
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-1 female with many males
-very rare |
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promiscuity
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-everyone mates w/ everyone
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k-selection
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-population determined by carrying capacity
-stable -favorable/unchanging enviornment -long-lived -parental investment high |
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r-selection
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-population determined by reproduction
-unstable -low parental investment -short-lived |
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follicle stimulation hormone
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-secreted by pituitary gland
-starts development of follicles -peaks at ovulation |
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lutenizing hormone
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-secreted by pituitary gland
-peaks at ovulation |
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estrogen
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-secreted by ovaries
-peaks at ovulation |
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progesterone
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-secreted by corpus luteum
-maintains thickness of endometrium |
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birth control
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-more ovarian hormones
-prevents production of pituitary hormones |
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zygote
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fertilized egg
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blastocyst
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sphere with mass of cells in middle
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macronutrients
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-carbohydrates
-lipids -proteins |
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carbohydrates
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-sugars
-give us energy |
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lipids
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-water insoluable
-long chains of carbon bonds -tryiglycerides/cholesterol -energy use/storage -carry other fat-soluable molecules into body |
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triglycerides
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-saturated v. non-saturated determined by how many double bonds
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cholesterol
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-non-polar
-high content in animal fats |
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phospholipids
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-non-polar fatty acid tails
-polar head -in water - tails go away from water, heads go towards |
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protein
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-structural component
-bring things through membrane -cytoskeleton -packaging DNA |
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micronutrients
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-vitamins
-minerals |
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vitamins
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-complex nutrients only needed in small quantities
-structural components -anti-oxidants - prevent unneccesary oxidation |
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minerals
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-organic ion/metal
-structural components -used in hemoglobin -store energy -water retention |
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ion
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-charged atom
-ex. sodium, potassium, calcium |
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metal
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ex. iron, zinc
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motility
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-process of digestive system
-direction to tract -ex. swallowing |
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secretion
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-process of digestive system
-adding things to digestive tract -mucus, digestive enzymes, bile, bilirubin |
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digestion
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-process of digestive system
-breaking down larger molecules into smaller -mechanical/chemical |
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chemical digestion
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-directed by enzymes
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absorbtion
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-process of digestive system
-movement of molecules from inside intestines into cells -absorb nutrients/other secretions |
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diffusion
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-molecules move from high concentration to low concentration
-no energy required -cross bilipid layer (anything fat-soluable) -or channel (protein in cell membrane) -or carrier (protein in cell membrane, like channel but w/ binding site inside) |
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active transport
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-low concentration to high
-requires energy -uses a carrier w/ energy |
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endocytosis
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-membrane invaginates and then pinches off, creating a vesicle
-encloses molecules and then carries them into cell |
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blood
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-plasma and cells (ie hemoglobin, immune cells) and platelets
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blood vessels
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-arteries, veins, capillaries
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ateries
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-carry blood away from heart
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vein
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-carry blood towards heart
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capillaries
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-very small
-very thin wall for maximum diffusion |
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heart
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-cardiac muscle
-4-chambered |
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homeostasis
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-keeping things at steady rate
-gluclose level in blood is highly regulated by insulin and glucogon |
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insulin
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-when glucose levels are too high, it causes glucose to be taken into cells
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glucogon
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-when glucose levels are too low, it causes the liver to release glucose stores
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autotropes
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-make own food
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photosynthesis
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-using energy in light to make carbs
-light reactions and dark reactions -both happen in chloroplasts |
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light reactions
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-light and H2O in
-energy (ATP, NADPH) is produced -O2 is released |
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dark reactions
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-ATP, NADPH fed in
-glucose and CO2 are produced through Calvin Cycle |
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dermal tissue
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-cuticle, trichome, and stomata
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cuticle
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-waxy covering on surface of plant
-keeps invaders out -prevents water from evaporating |
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trichome
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-stalk-like extensions from surface
-can be used for absorbtion, secretion |
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stomata
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-small holes mostly on surface of leaves
-main location for gas exchange -opening/closing can be regulated by guard cells |
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vascular tissue
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-xylem/phloem
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xylem
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-H2O moved up plant
-made of dead cells -water moved by suction |
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phloem
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-nutrients moved up and down
-live cells -water moved by osmosis |
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osmosis
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-movement of water into regions of high solute concentration
-glucose is actively pumped across membrane, water follows it |
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fertilizers
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-supply plants with needed nutrients
-natural (manure, composting, etc.) -chemical (nitrate,etc.) risks: surrounding eviornment unintentionally overly nutrient enriched |
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irrigation
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-water is limiting nutrient, so maximize H2O supply
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cancer
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-cells w/ genetic mutations that collectively cause them to grow in an uncontrollable manner indefinately
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properties of cancer cells
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-divide uncontrollably
-fail to communicate appropriately with other cells -move inappropriately or aggressively throughout body -change gene expression -refuse to die |
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malignant tumor
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-aggressive - moves into and invades other tissue, can travel in blood stream
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benign tumor
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-cannot move
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oncogene
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-mutated gene
-when mutated promote cell growth/division |
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tumor-suppresor genes
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-when mutated lose function (inhibit cell growth)
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risk factors of cancer
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-age
-inherited predisposition -virus -radiation -chemical carciongens -diet |
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age
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-risk factor of cancer
-accumlation of mutations over time -DNA repair mechanisms get worn out |
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inherited predisposition
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-risk factor of cancer
-inherit 1 copy of mutated gene -inherit defect in DNA repair mechanism |
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virus
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-risk factor of cancer
-carry mutated oncogene -20% cancers worldwide |
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radiation
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-risk factor of cancer
-UV rays - skin cancer -ionizing - x-rays, atomic bomb, etc. |
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chemical carcinogens
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-risk factor of cancer
-causes mutations -ex. tobacco, industrial waste, etc. |
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diet
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-risk factor of cancer
-30% cancers worldwide -low in fat, high in fiber, high in antioxidants = good diet |