Life Development

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academic self-concept

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one of two divisions of children's general self-concept, referring to sense of self as an achiever in school subjects. Can be further divided into specific school subject areas sucha s math, science, English, and social studies

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acceptance

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A reaction to impending death that is characterized by a sense of peace and relative tranquility, suggesting that one has come to terms with the inevitable.

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acceptance factor

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An aspect of parental responsiveness that includes being affectionate, praising the child, being involved in the child's life, and showing concern for the child's needs; correlated with children's self-esteem and social adjustment.

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accommodation

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In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the adaptation process by which existing knowledge structures are modified somewhat when an individual is exposed to new information

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achievement

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One of Marcia's four identy status categories characterizing individuals whose development has been marked by exploration and then commitment to certain alternatives. Persons in this category have constructed their identity by their own efforts to shape and transform their earlier selves.

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achieving commitment

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An alternative name for Marcia's "achievement" that is used by Meeus and colleagues, because it emphasizes the dynamic linkage between high levels of commitment and high levels of exploration.

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achieving stage

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In Schaie's theory, the stage of cognitive development when a young adult must apply her intellectual skills to the achievement of long-term goals, carefully attending to the consequences of the problem-solving process.

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acquisition stage

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In Schaie's theory, the time in cognitive development (during childhood and adolescence) when an individual is sheltered from the majority of life's responsibilities and can learn a skill or a body of knowledge regardless of whether it has any practical goal or social implications.

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active euthanasia

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Injection of a medication by someone else that causes immediate death.

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active gene effects

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the influence of genes on an individual's choice of environments, companions, and activities. People choose environments that are compatible with their interests, and those interests may be influenced by genes.

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activity level

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The intensity and quantity of movement an individual displays; one aspect of infant temperament.

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actuarial prediction

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Predicting an individual's outcome based on group characteristics, such as predicting how likely an individual is to suffer a heart attack based on the frequency of heart attacks in large samples of people with similar characteristics (same age, gender, socio-economic status, etc.)

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adaptation

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In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the process by which the human mind constructs its knowledge, both assimilating new information to existing knowledge structures or understandings, and accommodating those structures to create a better fit to what is new.

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adolescence-limited antisocial pattern

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A developmental pattern of adolescent antisocial behavior that develops in adolescence and usually ends shortly thereafter.

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adolescent growth spurt

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Corresponding with puberty, a rapid increase in size accompanied by changes in the shape and proportions of the body.

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adolescent-onset or late-starter model

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A developmental pathway of antisocial behavior that begins in adolescence and is not likely to result in adult criminality. Although serious, it seems to be reflective of a difficult or exaggerated reaction to the adolescent period.

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adolescing

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The process of advancing with age, improving or growing.

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adrenarche

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The point just before puberty when the adrenal gland increases its activity and children begin to show sexual attraction.

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adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

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A hormone, released into the bloodstream during the body's response to stress, which prompts the adrenal glands to release "stress hormones."

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Adult Attachment Inventory (AAI)

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A structured interview in which adults describe their memories of the parenting they received and their evaluation of whether and how that parenting influenced their own development. Based on coding of the verbatim transcripts, adults are categorized as having one of four attachment styles: autonomous (secure), dismissing (insecure), preoccupied (insecure), and unresolved (insecure). The security of an adult's attachment style tends to be correlated with the attachment security of their own infants.

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advance directives (living wills)

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Statements, typically in writing that describe a person's wishes regarding treatment in the event of incurable illness.

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age-graded changes

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Changes to which a person must adapt that are strongly age determined, such as physical changes.

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agency

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In cognitive functioning, the ability to act without an external trigger or to engage in self-motivated behavior. In social-emotional functioning, a constituent of generativity that involves generating, creating, and producing things, ideas, people, events, and so on as powerful extensions of the self.

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agreeableness (A)

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One of the Big 5 personality traits that is described using synonyms including: warm, sympathetic, generous, forgiving, kind, and affectionate.

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alarm phase

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The first phase in the body's reaction to a stressor, during which the activity of the sympathetic nervous system and adrenal glands increases in preparation for flight or fight.

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alleles

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Different forms of the same gene, such as the many forms of the eye color gene.

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allostatic load

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The physiological wear and tear on the body that results from ongoing adaptive efforts to maintain stability (homeostasis) in response to stressors.

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Alzheimer's disease (AD)

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A brain disease that leads to dementia. Becomes more prevalent with age. Extensive brain changes including the development of plaques and tangles lead to the common symptom characteristics of the disease including absentmindedness, confusion, language and memory problems, disorientation, and problems with physical coordination. The eventual outcome is death.

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amniocentesis

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A medical procedure that can be done during a woman's pregnancy, usually at about the 16th week. A small amount of amniotic fluid is extracted from the uterus with a special syringe. Cells from the fluid have the same genetic makeup as the fetus and can be used to identify chromosomal and other abnormalities in the fetus.

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amniotic fluid

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A watery substance that surrounds a fetus, protecting the fetus from bumps and helping it maintain a constant temperature.

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amniotic sac

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A membrane that surrounds the fetus and contains anmiotic fluid, providing a protective buffer from outside influences.

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amygdala

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A brain structure that influences motivation, emotional control, fear responses, and interpretation of nonverbal, emotional expressions.

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anal fixation

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In Freud's personality theory, the result of an unsatisfactory experience at the anal stage that can include being whithholding (of mental and emotional resources), being compulsively cautious about keeping things clean and in order, or being overly messy and disorganized.

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anal personality

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In Freud's personality theory, a person who has an anal fixation.

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anal stage

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In Freud's theory, the second of psychosexual stage, beginning in the 2nd year of life, when the anal area of the body becomes the focus of greatest pleasure. During this stage, parenting practices associated with toilet training that are either overcontrolling or overindulgent could have long-lasting effects on personality development.

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androgens

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Male hormones, produced in the testes that contribute to the develpment of male reproductive organs and may affect some aspects of brain development.

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anger

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A type of coping mechanism experienced by one nearing death that is a normal reaction to separation and loss. May be directed toward God, toward others, or toward the disease itself.

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antisocial behavior

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Behavior characterized by the presence of aggression or the intent to harm another person. More broadly may include such acts as risky sexual activity, substance abuse, defiance, cheating, lying, and vandalism.

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antisocial personality disorder

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A disorder characterized by antisocial behavior, with conduct problems typically beginning in early childhood.

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anxious-ambivalent

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An attachment category describing babies who show a great deal of distress on separation from their mothers, and who may act angry when reunited with the mother, alternately approaching and resisting her, or who may respond listlessly to her efforts to comfort. They seem preoccupied with their mothers and rarely return to exploration after a separation.

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anxious arousal

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A state that children are thought to experience when parents discipline them. Hoffman proposed that mild forms help a child pay attention to the parent's socialization message, but more intense arousal attracts the child's attention to other concerns, like their own fear.

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applied developmental science

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An emerging field that has begun to synthesize and apply the findings of developmental psychology to the solution of real-world problems.

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arthritis

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A debilitating disease common in the elderly that is characterized by the onset of pain, stiffness, and swelling of joints and surrounding tissues.

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assimilation

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In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the process of interpreting new stimulation or information as fitting with what one already knows, sometimes distorting the new information as a result.

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Association area

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A part of the cortex that is not a "primary" area involved in vision, hearing, sensory, or motor functions. Integrates information coming from the various primary cortical areas and appears to be important for complex cognitive functioning.

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attachment theory

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According to Bowlby, the infant and his primary caregiver(s) participate in an interactive system that has evolved to keep the infant safe and ensure survival. As the infant changes cognitively and emotionally, an affectional bond with the caregiver emerges in stages, with a full-fledged attachment likely by about 7 or 8 months.

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attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

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A disability marked by the following features: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

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attention-persistence

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Length of uninterrupted orienting or attention to a single activity and tendency to return to a task after interruption; an aspect of infant temperament.

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attribute substitution

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A process involving imitation and identification in which adolescents need to borrow and "try on" various behaviors and attributes that they observe in others, because the state of frameworklessness leaves them without clearly defined ways of behaving and thinking.

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authoritarian style

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An interactive parenting style that combines low levels of warmth (cold emotional climate) with high levels of control of demandingness. Associated with negative emotional tone, poor social skills, and other negative outcomes in children.

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authoritative style

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An interactive parenting style that combines high levels or warmth (affection, sensitivity and responsivity) with moderate to high levels of control or demandingness. Associated with many positive child outcomes.

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autobiographical memory

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What we remember of our own history of experiences, including representations of who we have been at various points in the past. Largely synonymous with episodic memory.

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autonomic functions

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A set of bodily functions, such as those involving the organ systems, that is outside an individual's conscious control.

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autonomous (secure)

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An attachment category characterizing adults who provide an Adult Attachment Inventory transcript that is coherent and collaborative. They integrate and monitor their thinking, summarize answers, return the conversation to the interviewer, demonstrate good perspective-taking skills, acknowledge the importance of attachment-related experiences in their development, and tend to have children who are securely attached.

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autonomous stage

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Stage of moral development described by Piaget that begins in middle childhood. Children now understand that rules are based on social agreements and can be changed.

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autonomy

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In Ryan and Deci's self-determination theory, one of three basic or universal needs. Being in control of oneself, or feeling that one's behavior is congruent with one's "true self", meaning that it is intrinsically motivated.

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autonomy versus shame and doubt

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The crisis faced in the second of Erikson's "Eight Stages of Man," in which the 1- to 3-year old child may develop feelings of autonomy ("I can do things myself") or of shame and self-doubt, depending on whether his caregive strikes the right balance between exercising control and being sensitive to the child's new need for independence

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autosomes

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The 22 of 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans that are matched (they look and function alike).

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average

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A sociometric category that includes those children who receive an average number of positive and negative nominations from their peers (near the mean for the group on social preference and social impact).

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avoidant

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An attachment category describing babies who typically fail to cry when separated from their mothers in a strange situation test. They actively avoid or ignore her when she returns, sometimes combining proximity seeking and moving away, but mostly turning away and often appearing unemotional. In Bartholomew's typology of adult attachments, a category that is subdivided into two types (dismissing and fearful) based on the individual's reports of felt distress.

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axon

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A long extension, projecting from the cell body of a neuron, which is like a cable attached to a piece of electronic equipment. Electrical impulses travel from the cell body through the axon toward synapses with other neurons.

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axon terminals

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Structure found at the ends of axons, which contain tiny sacs of neuro-transmitters.

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babbling

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Infant vocal sounds, usually beginning around 6 months of age, consisting of repeated consonant-vowel-consonant sequences such as "bababa" or "doodoodoo". By 9 months of age, they tend to be limited to the sounds permissible in the baby's native language.

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bargaining

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A reaction to impending death that serves as an attempt to postpone an inevitable death by making promises, usually to a divine other, or trying to delay death until some memorable event has taken place.

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basic trust

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In Erikson's theory of personality development, an infant's ability to see others as dependable and trustworthy as a result of care-giving that is timely, sensitive to the infant's needs, and consistently available.

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behavioral facilitation system

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Neural system that regulates approach behaviors, response to incentives, positive affect, and psychomotor activity.

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behavioral inhibition

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In late infancy and childhood, a tendency toward shyness, manifested as avoidance or distress in new situations. This trait is linked to high reactivity (including irritability in response to new sensory stimulation) in early infancy.

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behavioral inhibition system

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Neural system that regulates withdrawal and avoidance behaviors.

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behavior genetics

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The field of quantitative genetics that explores the extent to which behavioral differences among individuals may be related to genetic influences.

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behaviorist tradition

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Approaches to explaining learning in which behavioral change is seen as a function of chains of specific environmental events, such as those that occur in classical and operant conditioning.

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binge drinking

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Drinking many drinks in a row.

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bidirectional processes

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Reciprocal relationships between causal mechanisms. Factors that result in developmental change often moderate each others' influence. For example, genetic influences are moderated by environmental processes and vice versa.

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bipolar disorder

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An affective disorder that is generally characterized by episodes of mania or hypomania, sometimes alternating with episodes of depression.

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bisexuality

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A characteristic of individulas who have interest in sexual relations with partners of both sexes.

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body image

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The concept of, and attitude toward one's physical appearance.

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borderwork

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Interactions between boys and girls during middle childhood when there appear to be unwritten rules governing when and how the two genders will interact.

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brainstem

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A set of lower brain structures that include the medulla, pons, and midbrain.

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broad socialization

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Socialization that permits and encourages high levels of individual freedom of expression, has few social constraints, expects less community responsibility, and thus tolerates a wide variety of socially deviant behaviors.

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Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory

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A comprehensive developmental model proposed by Bronfenbrenner that takes into account the many levels of influence the environmnet can have on an individual. The interacting systems in this model are the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem.

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"the bump"

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A salient feature of self-memories. Regardless of age, adults' cue-prompted memories of the self from the young adult period (ages 18-22) are slightly but reliably overproduced.

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cannot classify

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An attachment category characterizing adults who may have psychiatric disorders and who do not fit in any of the other four attachment style categories.

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career consolidation (vs. self-absorption)

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A life stage that Vaillant added to Erikson's sequence of stages, characterizing the mid-20s, when in addition to ongoing intimacy concerns, one becomes concerned with making a commitment to work that brings personal satisfaction, regardless of its other rewards, rather than just having a job.

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carrier

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Someone with a gene that is unexpressed in his phenotype but can be passed on to offspring.

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causal variable

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The postulated cause of a given phenomenon.

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central sulcus

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A fissure in the cerebrum that is used to locate the parietal lobe, which sits behind this fissure.

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centration

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A characteristic of preoperational thought in which the child tends to focus on one salient feature of an experience or event at a time.

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centromere

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The central location where duplicate chromosomes remain joined during cell division.

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cephalo-caudal

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Describes the "head to tail" direction of prenatal development.

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cerebellum

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A brain structure located in the hindbrain that is involved in the planning, coordination, and smooth operation of complex motor activities.

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cerebral cortex

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The outer layer of the gray matter of the cerebrum, which is the highest and most recently evolved portion of the brain.

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cerebrovascular accident (stroke)

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A cardio-vascular problem in which an artery serving the brain is either clogged or bursts.

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cerebrum

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The highest brain structure, comprising two thirds of the forebrain, and coordinating most other brain activity. Involved in higher brain processes like thinking, language, decision making, and so on.

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child centered

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Describes caregivers who set aside their own needs (for time and convenience) to meet a child's developmental needs.

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chromosomes

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Forty-six tiny strands of DNA, found in the nucleus of each cell of the body, which are the source of biological inheritance.

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chunking

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The cognitive process of linking several pieces of information together into a single meaningful unit, such as remembering the digits 1, 7, 7, and 6 by thinking of the year 1776.

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circuits

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Series of neurons that are joined via their synaptic connections into groups and are part of larger organizations of neurons.

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circuits

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Series of neurons that are joined via their synaptic connections into groups and are part of larger organizations of neurons.

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classical conditioning

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A process by which a change in behavior takes place when a neutral event of stimulus is associated with a stimulus that causes an automatic response. As a result the neutral stimulus causes the person to make the same automatic response in the future.

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climacteric

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The gradual reduction of reproductive ability in women usually beginning in their late 30s when the menstrual cycle begins to shorten and become somewhat more erratic as a result of a reduction in the amount of circulating estradiol.

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clinical-developmental psychology

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A therapeutic approach, developed by Noam that blends developmental knowledge with clinical practice.

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cliques

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Voluntary social or friendship groups of three to nine members characterizing children in early to middle adolescence.

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closed commitment

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Meeus and colleagues' alternative name for Marcia's "foreclosure". It signifies an identity with a high level of present commitment and low levels of coexisting exploration.

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closed identity domains

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Areas of identity in which individuals tend toward foreclosure because they have little control over them.

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coaction

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The intricate pattern by which genes and environmnet mutually influence one another. The activity of the genes is affected by the environment of the cell that is affected by other levels of the environment including the outside world. One result is that the same complement of genes produces different outcomes in different environments. Also, the same environment can have different effects on outcomes when interacting with different genes.

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code switching

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Shifting from one form or style of speech to another depending on context, such as shifting from using slang with friends to using more polite forms with authority figures.

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codominance

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A type of relationship between two alleles of the same gene (located at matching sites on a pair of chromosomes) in which neither allele is suppressed., producing a blended outcome.

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coercive family interaction

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Patterson's description of how children learn to act aggressively. Aggressive children respond to parental demands by behaving aversively (whining, etc), parents retreat, rewarding the child's noncompliance, and parents are reinforced with short-lived peace and quiet. Children are trained in the effectiveness of aggressive noncompliance and learn powerful parent-control strategies.

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cohort

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A group of people who were born in the same historical period and grew up at about the same time.

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cohort effects

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Also called history-graded events, they are events that provide a context for development and also influence it directly. The year of your birth marks your entry into a cohort of peers who accompany you through age-graded developmental changes within the context of a specific set of historical events.

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collaborative or affiliative speech

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A type of speech, more often used among girls, in which children's responses are keyed to what someone else has said, expressing agreement or making further suggestions, often in the form of a question rather than declarative or imperative sentences.

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collective egocentrism

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Peer influences on maintaining risky behavior; each adolescent's illusion of invincibility strengthens that of the other members of the peer group.

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commitment

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An element of love that refers to making a decision to sustain a relationship with a loved one.

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commitment foreseen

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Position 6 in Perry's model in which thinking incorporates not only respect for diverse ideas and understanding of their rationale, but also the individual's affirmation of what it is she believes in, all the while knowing that reason will never provide absolute proof that her ideas or perspectives are right or better than others.

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committed compliance

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Describes toddlers' eager and enthusiastic willingness to go along with parental requests. Predicts measures of internalization and conscience in the later pre-school period.

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communion

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A constituent of generativity that is expressed in the adult's desire to care for the next generation, even to the point of sacrificing her own well-being for the good of those who will follow.

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compatibility

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A standard for mate selection in which one chooses a potential mate based on how his or her personality meshes with one's own personality.

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compelling circumstances

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Conditions that mitigate the guilt of a criminal defendant because he or she faced such pressure when the crime was committed that even an ordinary, reasonable person could be expected to have acted in the same way, such as acting in the face of extreme need or under threat of injury.

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compensation

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A process that contributes to successful development. When a loss of some kind prevents the use of one means to an end, the individual finds another means.

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competence

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In self-determination theory, feeling effective in one's interactions with the social environment and experiencing opportunities to exercise and express one's capacities.

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complicated or abnormal grief

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A response to bereavement that is generally accompanied by other disorders such as major depression, substance abuse, or post-traumatic stress disorder that is intense and lasts for an extended period of time, greatly interfering with functioning. Abnormal grief may also be marked by a complete absence of grief and the total inability to experience grief reactions.

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compulsive caregiving

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Describes a behavioral pattern in which children (usually insecurely attached, avoidant children) take emotional care of their parents.

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compulsive self-sufficiency

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Describes a behavioral pattern in which children (usually insecurely attached, avoidant children) appear very self-possessed, perhaps related to experiences of shaming for expressions of dependency or needs for closeness.

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concrete operational stage

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In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the period from about age 6 to 12 when children begin to think logically but have difficulty applying logical thought to abstract contents.

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conditioned stimulus

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A formerly neutral stimulus that has become associated with a stimulus that causes an automatic response, thus causing the same automatic response in the future.

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conduct disorder (CD)

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A pattern of serious behavior problems that violate the basic rights of others, such as stealing, aggression, or property destruction. Presently, this diagnosis requires a persistent pattern of aggression in youth.

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conferred identity

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The identity attained by those who are foreclosed (individuals who make commitments with little or no exploration of alternatives).

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confirmation bias

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When a child's peers have already developed schemas or constructions for him that are built on his social reputation, the interactions with the target child that follow are marked by attention to evidence that confirms the target child's characteristics.

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congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

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A gender-atypical condition in which biological females with two X chromosomes are exposed to high levels of androgens (male hormones) during prenatal and postnatal development.

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conscience

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An internalized slate of standards and principles that constitutes a person's primary guide to action. May cause feelings of discomfort or distress when the violation of a rule is contemplated or carried out.

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conscientiousness (C)

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One of the Big 5 personality traits that is described using synonyms including: organized, planful, reliable, responsible, careful, and efficient.

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consolidation

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In Super's theory, achievement of advanced status and seniority in the work-place that often accompanies the maintenance stage.

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constructed identity

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The identity not based upon a predetermined set of expectations, but rather representative either of a personal redefinition of childhood and early adolescent goals and values or perhaps something very different from them.

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constructivism

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Rooted in theories such as Piaget's, assumes that individuals are not just passive receptors of information who acquire knowledge via external manipulations. Instead, people actively construct their knowledge by interpreting information in light of prior learning, by actively restructuring prior knowledge, or by co-constructing knowledge in interactions with others.

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contextual relativism

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Position 5 in Perry's model that represents a major achievement in intellectual development because the student now possesses analytic abilities that allow her to appreciate the merits of diverse perspectives and to find convincing elements in multiple points of view. Thinking relativistically, or thinking about knowledge in context, becomes more habitual.

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contingency management system

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Presenting and withdrawing reinforcers and punishments in a systematic and consistent way to effect behavioral change.

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control dimension (parental demandingness)

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One of two major features of parenting style. The degree to which parents impose discipline, requiring their children to curb some of their behaviors and to perform other behaviors that are suitable to their level of maturity.

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control group

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In experimental design, a group like the experimental group in every way except that the causal variable is not purposely changed.

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controversial

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A sociometric category that identifies a relatively small group of children who receive many positive and many negative nominations from peers (high social impact, average social preference).

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conventional morality

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Kohlberg's second stage of moral reasoning in which what is right depends on others' approval or on the need to maintain social order.

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conventional rules

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Social rules of conduct that vary from one culture to another and are a function of social agreement, such as rules about appropriate dress, forms of address, and table manners.

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cooperative learning environments

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Classrooms or other organizations that encourage children to work in pairs or in groups to solve academic problems and to improve their understanding of concepts or skills.

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corpus callosum

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A network of fibers that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres of the brain. Its maturation from early childhood through adolescence contributes to coordination and integration of information and aids in the development of consciousness.

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correlational studies

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Often utilized when experiments are impractical or unethical, a technique in which both the causal variable and outcome variable are measured or observed, and nothing is actually manipulated by the researcher. Such studies can determine whether changes in the causal variable are matched by predicted changes in the outcome variable, but they cannot determine whether changes in the causal variable caused the changes in the outcome variable.

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corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRF)

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A hormone produced by the hypothalamus that stimulates the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH).

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cortisol

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A hormone, released during the body's response to stress, that increases blood glucose levels and affects the immune response.

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counting all strategy

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Rudimentary addition strategy of young children. For example, given the problem of adding 2 plus 3, holding up two fingers on one hand, three fingers on the other hand and counting all of them.

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counting on strategy

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Addition strategy of young children. For example, given the problem of adding 2 plus 3, starting at 2 and counting three more digits on from there.

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critical period

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A certain time frame in which some developments, such as first language learning, must take place or the opportunity is missed.

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cross-sectional studies

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A study design in which different ages are represented by different groups of people as opposed to one group of people over time.

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crowds

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Large, reputation-based groups, composed of numerous cliques that form in early to mid-adolescence.

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crystallization

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In Super's theory, the formulation of general vocational goals in the early part of the exploratory stage.

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crystallized intelligence (pragmatics)

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The compilation of skills and information we have acquired in the course of our lives that can be viewed as the software programs of our nervous system.

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culture

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Shared traditions, attitudes, values, and beliefs handed down from one generation to the next.

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cytokines

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Small protein molecules of many different varieties that are secreted by cells of the immune system and that help regulate its functioning.

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daily hassles

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Category of stressor that is chronic and cumulative in its effect.

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day reconstruction method (DRM)

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Method of research in which participants revive memories of a previous day, describe the days' experiences, and rate affective valence of experiences.

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decalages

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Within-stage variations in Piaget's cognitive stage theory. Children sometimes show more advanced or less advanced functioning in one or another cognitive domain than is typical of their overall stage of development.

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decathecting

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Detaching emotionally from the relationship one had experienced with a loved one prior to their death and reinvesting psychic energy into the formation of new attachments.

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decentration

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A characteristic of concrete and formal operational thought in Piaget's cognitive theory. Attending to multiple pieces of information (or multiple aspects of a situation) at one time; a necessary ingredient in logical thinking.

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declarative knowledge

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Knowledge about facts (semantic information) and events (episodic information).

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decline stage

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In Super's theory, just before and after age 65, when one's career winds down, retirement is planned and takes precedence over career advancement and consolidation.

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deferred imitation

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Imitation in which children observe the actions of another on one occasion, and then imitate those actions sometime later. In order to do so, the child must be able to recall the observed actions.

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degrouping

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A general decline in the importance of cliques over the course of the high school years.

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delayed phase preference

Back 164

A shift in sleep patterns characterized by staying up later in the evening and sleeping later in the morning than younger children that has been associated with hormonal changes at puberty.

Front 165

demand characteristics

Back 165

Behavioral tendencies that often either encourage or discourage certain kinds of reactions from others.

Front 166

dementia

Back 166

Cognitive functioning that is so severly impaired that it negatively affects ability to relate to others and to manage one's own daily activities.

Front 167

democracy factor

Back 167

An aspect of parental responsiveness. The degree to which parents encourage children's psychological autonomy by soliciting their opinions or encouraging self-expression. Related to children's self-reliance, self-confidence, willingness to work hard, and general competence.

Front 168

dendrites

Back 168

Small projections that grow out from a neuron's cell body; they receive transmissions from other neurons.

Front 169

denial

Back 169

A type of defense mechanism for dealing with stressful events, such as approaching death, associated with feelings of numbness or disbelief that buffers the person from the full weight of the threat.

Front 170

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Back 170

A complex organic substance that comprises chromosomes and genes.

Front 171

depressed mood

Back 171

A subclinical level of depression.

Front 172

depression

Back 172

A pattern of symptoms that include depressed mood, sadness, feelings of hopelessness, and loss of pleasure or interest in formerly pleasurable activities. In clinical usage, various subtypes of depression have been identified and all cause significant impairment in functioning.

Front 173

description

Back 173

The first step in the scientific method, aimed at answering factual questions about a phenomenon, such as who, what, when, where, and with whom.

Front 174

despair

Back 174

The third phase in the grieving process characterized by great sadness; social withdrawal; sleeping, eating, or somatic disturbances; and other symptoms of depression or emotional upset.

Front 175

developmental lines

Back 175

Two sources or routes of cognitive development according to Vygotsky. One is the "socio-historical" or cultural route, which involves input from other people, and the other is the "natural" route, deriving from the child's own processing of information.

Front 176

developmental psychopathology

Back 176

A relatively new and influential field that has applied a developmental focus to the study of abnormal behavior and dysfunction.

Front 177

diathesis

Back 177

Underlying predispositions to some disease or abnormal condition.

Front 178

diathesis-stress

Back 178

Model for the development of psychopathology that assumes a genetic predisposition (diathesis) that confers particular sensitivity to environmental risk (stress).

Front 179

differential emotions theory

Back 179

Izard's view that facial expressions in infants are the direct manifestation of underlying neural processes related to the emotion expressed. For example, a sad expression implies the operation of the neural circuitry associated with sadness, so that if a baby looks sad, he is sad.

Front 180

differential susceptibility

Back 180

Child temperament moderates the influence of parenting styles and disciplinary strategies.

Front 181

differentiation

Back 181

The process by which a global skill or activity divides into multiple skills or begins to serve multiple functions.

Front 182

difficult babies

Back 182

A temperament type described by Thomas and Chess. These babies are fearful, irritable, active, display low levels of positive affect, are irregular in biological rhythms, and so on, making them more challenging to care for than other babies.

Front 183

diffusion

Back 183

One of Marcia's four identity status categories that often describes young adolescents as they embark on the identity development process. The individual is not actively involved in exploring possible life choices, nor has she made any firm commitments to them.

Front 184

digit span tests

Back 184

A test of working memory in which a series of digits are presented and the participant must repeat them in the correct order.

Front 185

diminished capacity

Back 185

One source of mitigation in adult criminal law. A guilty actor is considered less than fully blameworthy because of some deficiency at the time of the offense. Perhaps he was mentally ill, emotionally distressed, or intellectually impaired.

Front 186

discipline

Back 186

The tendency of parents to limit or demand behavior by exerting or requiring control.

Front 187

disenchantment

Back 187

The second stage of retirement, when people begin to experience an emotional "letdown" as they face the day-to-day realities of the change, such as separation from work colleagues, uncertainties about how to feel competent and in control, a sense of diminished generativity and meaningfulness, new tensions that may arise with one's partner, financial concerns, and perhaps, boredom.

Front 188

dishabituation

Back 188

After habituating to one stimulus, an infant may show reinstatement of the orienting response if the stimulus is changed. This response is dishabituation and indicates that the baby has noticed the difference between the original stimulus and the new stimulus.

Front 189

disillusionment model

Back 189

The view that posits that overly romantic idealizations of marriage and blissfully optimistic views of one's partner set people up for eventual disappointment.

Front 190

dismissing (insecure)

Back 190

An attachment style characterizing adults whose Adult Attachment Inventory transcripts provide little detail and coherence. They may describe their parents positively but provide either no evidence or contradictory evidence. They downplay close relationships and tend to have children who are in the avoidant attachment category. In Bartholomew's typology, these individuals prefer self-sufficiency and maintain a sense of superiority while devaluing the importance of others to their well-being.

Front 191

dismissive parenting

Back 191

Also called neglecting, a parenting style that describes parents who are essentially disengaged, scoring low on both responsiveness and demandingness.

Front 192

disorganized-disoriented

Back 192

An attachment category describing babies who produce contradictory and even bizarre behaviors in the strange situation test, showing both an inclination to approach the mother when stressed and a tendency to avoid her when she approaches.

Front 193

distal processes

Back 193

Factors outside the immediate external environment, including internal forces (genes) and external forces (features of the educational system or of the broader culture), which modify the proximal processes in Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model and other multidimensional theories.

Front 194

distraction

Back 194

A coping style that involves deliberate focusing on neutral or pleasant thoughts or engaging activities that divert attention in more positive directions. Distraction can attenuate depressive episodes.

Front 195

distress

Back 195

A form of negative stress that includes the kinds of frustrations, conflicts, pressures, and negative events that people experience in their lives either intermittently or chronically.

Front 196

domain of knowledge

Back 196

A specific subject matter, such as mathematics or chess or history.

Front 197

domain specific

Back 197

Describing a level of knowledge or skill that has been achieved in one subject area but not in others, such as being able to think logically about math but not about baseball or biology.

Front 198

dominant-recessive

Back 198

A type of relationship between two alleles of the same gene, in which one allele is expressed whereas the other is suppressed.

Front 199

domineering or power-assertive speech

Back 199

Discourse containing many commands and restrictions. Tends to be "egotistic," ignoring others' remarks, and often includes threats and interruptions, more typical of males than females.

Front 200

double effect

Back 200

Giving medication intended to relieve pain even though there is a chance that death can result.

Front 201

double standard

Back 201

The idea that female sexual behavior is judged more harshly than male sexual behavior.

Front 202

Down syndrome (Trisomy 21)

Back 202

A disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome number 21 and often characterized by mental retardation, flattened facial features, poor muscle tone, and heart problems.

Front 203

downward social comparisons

Back 203

Comparing oneself to less competent or less successful peers when one's own self-esteem is at stake. Such comparisons protect the individual from negative self-evaluations.

Front 204

dual-process model

Back 204

The model that proposes that bereaved individuals simultaneously engage in two kinds of coping mechanisms, approach and avoidance, that wax and wane over the course of grieving.

Front 205

dyads

Back 205

A social unit or "group" that consists of two people.

Front 206

early-starter model

Back 206

One developmental pathway to antisocial behavior. Oppositional behavior begins in early childhood, persists and diversifies over time, and becomes increasingly more serious.

Front 207

earned secure

Back 207

An attachment style characterizing adults who in Adult Attachment Inventory transcripts reveal experiences of early adversity, describe their painful backgrounds truthfully, acknowledge the stressors their own parents faced, and come to terms with their early experiences. Their children are usually securely attached.

Front 208

easy babies

Back 208

A temperament type described by Thomas and Chess. These babies are placid, not very active, show positive affect, and are regular in their rhythms, making them easier to care for than other babies.

Front 209

effortful control

Back 209

The inhibition of a compelling response that is "dominant" or preferred (e.g., eating dessert) to perform a response that is less compelling (e.g., complying with a diet). Plays a role in regulating or modulating emotional reactions.

Front 210

ego

Back 210

In Freud's personality theory, the second of three aspects of personality, which represents the rational, realistic self that seeks to meet bodily needs in sensible ways that take into account all aspects of a situation.

Front 211

egocentric speech

Back 211

Speech for self, a use of language typical of preschoolers that has no apparent communicative function. Piaget suggested that it serves no useful purpose, but Vygotsky argued that it is the precursor of inner speech and important for problem solving, planning, and self-control.

Front 212

egocentrism

Back 212

A failure to recognize one's own subjectivity. One fails to see things realistically because one is, in a sense, trapped in one's own perspective, and cannot imagine that others may have a different perspective on the same situation.

Front 213

ego identity

Back 213

Includes all the dimensions of self-knowledge and serves as the foundation for the behavioral, affective, and cognitive commitments to career, relationships, and political and religious belief systems that will be made in adulthood.

Front 214

Ego Identity Interview

Back 214

A standardized, semi-structured interview designed by Marcia to assess these core domains of identity: vocational choice, religious beliefs, and political ideology, gender-role attitudes, and beliefs about sexual expression through first asking general questions and then following up with more specific probes. Supplemental domains may include hobbies, friendships, dating relationships, role of spouse, role of parent, experiences at school, and issues of work-family balance.

Front 215

ego integrity (vs. despair)

Back 215

In Erikson's theory, the result of life review in the elderly. Integrity is a sense that one's own life is "something that had to be", and had order, meaning, and dignity. Despair is a sense of hopelessness that one's life has no coherence or meaning.

Front 216

elaboration strategy

Back 216

A memory strategy that requires finding or creating some kind of meaningful link between to-be-remembered items, such as creating a story that includes all the items.

Front 217

elaborative style

Back 217

A style that characterizes some adults' conversations with children about past experiences. Adults using this style engage in lengthy discussions providing lots of details, asking questions and encouraging children to provide details as well.

Front 218

elastin

Back 218

A substance in the cells of the dermis, or middle layer of skin, that allows the skin to stretch and contract as we move.

Front 219

Electra complex

Back 219

In Freud's theory, the belief that young girls direct their sexual urges toward their fathers, even thought they are more strongly attached to their mothers, because they experience penis envy. Young girls find themselves in competition with their mothers, although their fear of the mothers' displeasure is not as great as a young boy's because they assume that somehow they have already been castrated. The girl will identify with her mother to make peace and, therefore, become gender typed in her behavior and form a superego.

Front 220

emerging adulthood

Back 220

The time period from about 18 to 25, which is characterized by the shift toward increasing independence and autonomy.

Front 221

emotional intelligence

Back 221

The ability to perceive emotions, to identify and understand their meaning, to integrate them with other kinds of cognition, and to manage them.

Front 222

empathy

Back 222

"Feeling with" another person, recognizing her emotional condition and experiencing what she is assumed to be feeling.

Front 223

end-of-life care

Back 223

Principles that support more humanistic approaches to aiding individuals nearing death including better pain management, continuity of care, and attention to the psychological dimensions of death and dying.

Front 224

endocrine system

Back 224

A system of ductless glands that secrete their hormones directly into the bloodstream; responds to messages from the hypothalamus.

Front 225

endorphins

Back 225

Biochemical substances produced by the body under conditions of stress or vigorous exercise that serve to alleviate pain.

Front 226

entity theorists

Back 226

A theory of intelligence usually held by individuals who show a helpless pattern and who see intelligence or ability as a fixed, concrete thing.

Front 227

enzymes

Back 227

Proteinlike substances that facilitate chemical reactions in the body, such as those involved in metabolizing food.

Front 228

epigenesis

Back 228

The control of genetic expression by both regulatory DNA and environmental factors.

Front 229

epigenome

Back 229

The full set of factors, from DNA to outside world that controls the expression of coded genes.

Front 230

epigenetic theory

Back 230

A type of multidimensional or systems theory which assumes that development is the result of complex interactions between genetic and environmental elements. According to this approach, the effects of developmental changes are bidirectional, influencing both the environment and the biological system.

Front 231

epinephrine

Back 231

Also called adrenaline, it is a substance that is both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. One place it is produced is in the adrenal glands as part of the body's response to stress. Among its effects is increased heart rate.

Front 232

episodic

Back 232

Description of knowledge of the events that one has experienced. This knowledge is organized around time and space.

Front 233

Erikson's psychosocial stages

Back 233

Erik Erikson's eight-stage model of personality that focuses on explaining attitudes and feelings toward the self and others. The first five correspond to the age periods in Freud's psychosexual stages, whereas three adult stages suggest that personality development continues until death.

Front 234

escape

Back 234

Perry's characterization of the behavior of individuals who revert to relativism when the demands of commitment are too stressful.

Front 235

establishment stage

Back 235

In Super's theory, the final stage in the development of vocational self-concept (about 25-44), when work experiences provide the laboratory within which the matching of vocational self-concept and job settings is tried out, sometimes reevaluated, sometimes confirmed, and eventually stabilized.

Front 236

estradiol

Back 236

A form of the primary female hormone, estrogen, produced by the ovaries.

Front 237

estrogen

Back 237

A feminizing hormone that is produced by the ovaries in females and to a lesser extent by the testes in males.

Front 238

ethnic group

Back 238

People who share cultural traditions, attitudes, values, and beliefs that have been handed down through generations.

Front 239

ethologists

Back 239

Biologists who do careful observations of animal behavior in natural environments.

Front 240

eudaemonic well-being

Back 240

A term synonymous with psychological well-being.

Front 241

eustress

Back 241

A form of positive stress.

Front 242

evocative gene effects

Back 242

One kind of effect that genes can have on the environment. Genes can affect the individual's behavior which in turn can affect the reactions of others.

Front 243

executive stage

Back 243

In Schaie's theory, a stage that some middle adults experience who take on executive functions at work and in the community that extends beyond the responsible stage. This stage requires one to focus heavily on learning about complex relationships, multiple perspectives, commitment, and conflict resolution.

Front 244

exhaustion phase

Back 244

The final stage in the body's reaction to a stressor, which occurs if the struggles persist to the point that the body's resources are depleted. Depression, illness, or even death can occur after severe, prolonged stress.

Front 245

ecosystem

Back 245

In Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model, the level of the environment that children may not directly interact with but that influences them nonetheless.

Front 246

experience-dependent

Back 246

Describes neural growth that is stimulated by environmental experiences and may vary from one individual to another.

Front 247

experience-expectant

Back 247

Describes neural growth that requires a certain kind of environmental stimulation that is almost certain to occur in the experience of most members of a species. An example is development of the visual system that requires exposure to light in order to occur.

Front 248

experience sampling method (ESM)

Back 248

A research technique in which participants are interrupted at random times during the day and asked to report on what they are doing, thinking, and feeling.

Front 249

experiments

Back 249

A technique for testing the predictions of a theory in which the researcher purposely manipulates the causal variable to observe the effects of the manipulation on the outcome variable.

Front 250

explanation

Back 250

The second step in the scientific method, when the researcher frames a theory or set of hypotheses about how the facts gained from descriptive research are related to each other and why they occur.

Front 251

exploratory stage

Back 251

In Super's theory, the second life stage in the development of vocational self-concept from about 14 to 24, in which vocational self-concept is tentatively narrowed down, but often career choices are not finalized.

Front 252

externalizing problems

Back 252

Problem behavior that involves engaging in inappropriate conduct, especially aggressive acts.

Front 253

extraversion (E)

Back 253

One of the big 5 personality traits that is described using synonyms including: outgoing, active, assertive, energetic, talkative, and enthusiastic.

Front 254

false belief tasks

Back 254

Tasks in which one person has correct knowledge of a situation, but another person (or the same person at another time) has incorrect knowledge, or a "false belief". Used to test children's theory of mind, specifically their understanding of others' mental states.

Front 255

family life cycle

Back 255

A normative, stagelike sequence of traditional family developments in intact marriages as partners become parents, rear and launch their children, become "empty nesters", and subsequently face old age.

Front 256

fast mapping

Back 256

The rapidity with which young children add new words to functional vocabulary after only one or two exposures.

Front 257

fearful

Back 257

In Bartholomew's typology of adult attachment categories, a subcategory of avoidant attachment. Describes individuals who have negative models of both self and others and who see relationships as desirable but out of reach. Their desire for close relationships with others is thwarted by fear of rejection, and ultimately they withdraw. A high level of distress surrounds attachment themes.

Front 258

fearfulness or reactivity

Back 258

In infants, proneness to crying or pulling away from new sensory stimuli.

Front 259

fetal alcohol effects (FAE)

Back 259

Symptoms, usually in the form of cognitive impairments, affecting babies who do not have the physical or structural problems of fetal alcohol syndrome but who were exposed to small amounts of alcohol prenatally.

Front 260

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

Back 260

A condition found in babies who are exposed to alcohol prenatally. it is characterized by a unique facial configuration (small head, widely spaced eyes, flattened nose) as well as possible mental retardation and behavioral problems.

Front 261

five factor model of personality (Big 5)

Back 261

The five most basic dimensions of personality including neuroticism (N), extraversion (E), openness (O), agreeableness (A), and conscientiousness (C).

Front 262

flashbulb memories

Back 262

Recollections that are especially vivid and personally relevant because of the emotions associated with them.

Front 263

fluid intelligence (mechanics)

Back 263

Basic operational characteristics that seem to directly reflect how well the "hardware" of the nervous system is working. Its functions include such things as processing speed and inhibitory mechanisms.

Front 264

forebrain

Back 264

The largest and most recently evolved portion of a mammalian brain; includes the cerebrum.

Front 265

foreclosure

Back 265

One of Marcia's four identity status categories that describes individuals who make commitments with little or no exploration of alternatives. They incorporate the values and goals of significant others without reflection.

Front 266

forgotten half

Back 266

The name given to 18- to 24-year-olds who do not go to college.

Front 267

formal operational stage

Back 267

In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, a stage that begins at about 11 or 12 years, when children are able to engage in thinking which (1) rises above particular contents and focuses on relationships that govern those contents (abstractions), (2) involves coordinating multiple relationships, and (3) can be difficult even for adults.

Front 268

"four horsemen of the apocalypse"

Back 268

The four kinds of negativity that do the most damage to relationships and that are highly predictive of divorce. They are criticism, defensiveness, contempt, and stonewalling.

Front 269

fragile X syndrome

Back 269

A condition caused by a gene mutation on the X chromosome. It is the leading cause of mild to moderate mental retardation.

Front 270

frameworklessness

Back 270

A state of instability and anxiety unique to adolescents. This state is a result of the body changing in appearance, the emergence of adult sexual needs, hormonal shifts, the expanding capacity to reflect on the future and the self, and increased maturity demands.

Front 271

fraternal twins (dizygotic)

Back 271

Twins who develop from two separate zygotes and, like any two siblings, share about 50% of their genes.

Front 272

Freud's psychosexual stages

Back 272

The five developmental stages that Freud believed were initiated by changes in the id and its energy levels.

Front 273

friendship skills

Back 273

Behavioral skills, such as appropriate assertiveness, good communication, and conflict resolution that maintain and enhance friendships.

Front 274

friendship understanding

Back 274

A child's changing knowledge of what friendship implies.

Front 275

friendship valuing

Back 275

Emotional attachment or investment that a child makes in a friendship.

Front 276

frontal lobe

Back 276

The part of the cerebrum that is situated at the top front part of each hemisphere and controls voluntary muscle movements and higher-level cognitive functions such as planning, goal setting, and decision making.

Front 277

gender atypical

Back 277

Individuals who have either ambiguous genitalia or genitalia that is inconsistent with their sex chromosomes.

Front 278

gender constancy

Back 278

Recognizing the permanency of one's gender category membership and understanding that it could never change.

Front 279

gender identity

Back 279

The awareness of one's own gender assignment and understanding of its meaning.

Front 280

gender identity disorder (GID)

Back 280

A disorder seen in children who have early preferences of the toys, clothing, and activities of the opposite sex and who show some identity problems (such as wishing to be the other sex).

Front 281

gender intensification hypothesis

Back 281

A hypothesis that suggests that one way young teens cope with the demands of establishing an adult identity is to fall back on stereotyped notions of masculinity or femininity.

Front 282

gender schema

Back 282

A network of ideas and expectations of male and female beliefs about male and female characteristis that affect what we pay attention to, what we interpret, and what we remember about events.

Front 283

gender stability

Back 283

The understanding that over time, one's gender category stays the same: Boys grow into men, girls grow into women.

Front 284

gender stereotypes

Back 284

The beliefs and expectations that individuals have concerning the different behavioral tendencies and distribution of personality traits between the sexes.

Front 285

gene expression

Back 285

The process by which DNA information is transmitted and translated to cells.

Front 286

generalization

Back 286

The process by which learned behaviors may be extended to new events that are very similar to events in the original learning context.

Front 287

generativity

Back 287

A motive or need that can be filled through one's vocation or avocations, through child rearing, or through community service. It includes productivity and creativity. Generativity also describes people who are contributing members of society.

Front 288

generativity accomplishment

Back 288

A sense of satisfaction in making a meaningful contribution.

Front 289

generativity desire

Back 289

Expression of generativity goals, such as caring for future generations, wanting to produce something of lasting value, and being concerned about being needed.

Front 290

genes

Back 290

Functional units or sections of DNA that provide a blueprint or code to the cell for how to produce proteins and enzymes. Found on chromosomes, they come in matching pairs, one from each parent.

Front 291

genetic counselors

Back 291

People who help screen candidates for testing that would help determine the risk of genetic disorders for their offspring. Genetic counselors provide information and support to prospective parents regarding their choices about testing, childbearing, and parenting.

Front 292

genital stage

Back 292

The fifth and last of Freud's psychosexual stages, when the changes of puberty mean that id energy is especially invested in adult sexual impulses.

Front 293

genomic imprinting

Back 293

A process in which some gene alleles in the sperm or the ovum are deactivated. Imprinted gene alleles do not influence the phenotype of the offspring.

Front 294

genotype

Back 294

An individual's genetic endowment, including both expressed and unexpressed genes.

Front 295

germ cells

Back 295

Special cells located only in the ovaries of females and the testes of males that undergo a special kind of cell division, called meiosis, that produces eggs (ova) in females and sperm in males.

Front 296

germinal period

Back 296

The first two weeks of pregnancy, beginning at fertilization and ending at implantation in the uterine lining.

Front 297

germline gene therapy

Back 297

An experimental approach to correcting defective genes that involves altering the sperm or egg cells to pass on healthy genes to future generations.

Front 298

glia

Back 298

Supporting cells in the central nervous system that provide a type of scaffolding for the neurons.

Front 299

globalization

Back 299

The process by which, as a result of international communication, transportation, and trade, countries around the world influence one another's lifestyle, economics, and culture, so that similarities among nations increase along with interaction.

Front 300

gonads

Back 300

Testes in males and ovaries in females. Produce eggs (ova) in females and sperm in males. Increase their hormone production at puberty after being stimulated by hormones released from the pituitary gland in response to the maturing hypothalamus.

Front 301

goodness of fit model

Back 301

Thomas and Chess's view that when adults provide care that is adjusted to the temperament of an infant or child, even difficult early temperaments are unlikely to lead to later adjustment problems.

Front 302

grief work

Back 302

A process that explicitly encourages bereaved individuals to confront and "work through" their feelings about loss for recovery to take place.

Front 303

growth

Back 303

Developmental change or adaptation to the constant flux of influences on our lives that involves adding new characteristics, understandings, skills, and so on to our behavioral repertoire.

Front 304

growth stage

Back 304

In Super's theory, the first stage in the development of vocational self-concept lasting until about age 14. Many elements of identity develop in this stage including ideas about their interests, attitudes, skills, and needs.

Front 305

guided imagery

Back 305

A technique used to aid memory of an event or person. For example, a child might be asked to pretend that an event occurred, then create a mental picture of the event and its details.

Front 306

habituation

Back 306

A decrease in an infant's responses to a stimulus over time, including decreased looking, decreased sucking, a return to a resting heart rate, and so on.

Front 307

habituation paradigm

Back 307

A research technique which takes advantage of a baby's tendency to orient to new stimulation and to habituate to repeated or old stimulation. Once an infant habituates to one stimulus a new stimulus can be presented. The baby's reorienting to the new stimulus (or failure to do so) reveals whether or not she perceives or notices the differences between the stimuli.

Front 308

hedonic well-being

Back 308

A term synonymous with subjective well-being.

Front 309

hedonistic

Back 309

Preschool-aged children's tendency to be more concerned about their own needs than those of someone else in need.

Front 310

helpless pattern

Back 310

An orientation to failure in which individuals begin to denigrate their abilities when they encounter failure and typically stop applying themselves or trying to improve their performance.

Front 311

hemispheric specialization

Back 311

The two symmetrical halves of the cerebrum process information from and control opposite sides of the body. They also control some different higher cognitive functions, with the left hemisphere largely responsible for language and the right hemisphere largely responsible for visual-spatial skills.

Front 312

heritability

Back 312

The proportion of variation among individuals on a trait may be the result of their having different genes.

Front 313

heteronomous stage

Back 313

Stage of moral development described by Piaget characterizes children from about ages 5 through 8, when they regard rules as immutable, existing outside the self, and requiring strict adherence.

Front 314

heterosexuality

Back 314

A sexual preference for partners of the opposite sex.

Front 315

hidden object test

Back 315

A research technique invented by Piaget to assess object permanence in infants from 6 montths old. An interesting object, like a small toy, is placed in front of a baby within her reach. As the baby watches, the experimenter covers the object so that it is out of sight. If the baby searches for the object under the cloth she demonstrates that she has a sense of the continued existence of absent objects.

Front 316

heirarchical integration

Back 316

The organization and integration of activities and skills from one stage of development into broader, more complex patterns at the next stage.

Front 317

hindbrain

Back 317

The part of the mammalian brain that evolved first. Includes the medulla, pons, cerebellum, and reticular formation.

Front 318

hippocampus

Back 318

The region of the forebrain that plays a role in emotions, the ability to remember, and the ability to compare sensory information to expectations.

Front 319

history-graded changes

Back 319

Changes in our life experience that are a function of historical circumstance, including events that we share with our whole cohort.

Front 320

homeostatic steady state

Back 320

A stable state maintained over time by a couple's unique balance of positive and negative elements in areas of interactive behavior, perception, and physiology.

Front 321

homogamy

Back 321

A standard for mate selection in which one chooses a potential mate based on her or his similarity to oneself in religion, SES, race, education, and so on.

Front 322

homophily

Back 322

A degree of similarity among members of a peer group on behavior or attitudinal attributes of importance.

Front 323

homosexuality

Back 323

A sexual preference for partners of one's own sex.

Front 324

honeymoon

Back 324

The earliest stage of retirement, when people focus on the pleasures of being free from the constraints of old schedules, dress codes, and other work demands.

Front 325

hospice movement

Back 325

A patient-centered approach for people suffering from terminal illness that emphasizes the importance of giving patients as much knowledge about their condition as possible so that they maintain some control over their care, and focuses not on curing disease but on managing symptoms and pain by means of palliative medicine.

Front 326

hostile attributional bias

Back 326

A tendency to interpret or perceive what is neutral behavior as threatening. Often characterizes aggressive individuals.

Front 327

Human Genome Project

Back 327

A massive effort in molecular genetics that involved thousands of scientists around the world for 13 years (ending in 2003) and successfully mapped the sequence of chemical bases comprising all human chromosomes.

Front 328

Huntington's chorea

Back 328

A lethal genetic disorder, usually beginning between 30 and 40 years of age, that causes the nervous system to deteriorate, leading to uncontrolled movements, increasingly disordered psychological functioning, and eventually death. Because the dominant, defective alleles causing this disorder do not have their effects until after the childbearing years, it continues to be passed from one generation to another.

Front 329

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

Back 329

The system involved in the body's physical response to stress. When a person experiences or anticipates stress, the amygdala detects the danger and informs the hypothalamus, which communicates the danger to the pituitary gland, which responds by releasing adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) into the bloodstream. ACTH causes the adrenal glands to release the hormones epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol, which travel back to the brain and prepare the body to resist the stressor.

Front 330

hypothalamus

Back 330

The brain structure that plays a role in emotions, ability to remember, and ability to compare sensory information to expectations.

Front 331

"I" or self-as-subject

Back 331

The part of the self that is an active agent or is the knower. The part of the self that experiences a sense of subjective self-awareness.

Front 332

id

Back 332

In Freud's personality theory, one of three aspects of personality. Represents the biological self and its function are to keep the indivdual alive. It is irrational, blindly pursuing the fulfillment of physical needs or "instincts", such as the hunger drive and the sex drive.

Front 333

ideals

Back 333

Imagined, logically organized, perfect systems (such as political systems or persons) that do not match reality.

Front 334

identical twins (monozygotic)

Back 334

Twins who come from a single zygote and have exactly the same genotype.

Front 335

identification

Back 335

Trying to become like another person by both imitating the model's behaviors and internalizing her attitudes, standards, and values.

Front 336

ill-defined or ill-structured problems

Back 336

Problems faced in adulthood that lack preestablished answers. The "right" answer to an ill-defined problem may be different depending on circumstances and on the perspective of the problem solver.

Front 337

imaginary audience

Back 337

An individual's mistaken assumption that others are as intrigued by and concerned about him as he is. A characteristic feature of adolescents' self-focuses.

Front 338

immanent justice

Back 338

The expectation that misbehavior will eventually be punished, even if no one knows about it, as though some higher authority is always watching.

Front 339

immunosuppression

Back 339

Suppressed or weakened state of the immune system.

Front 340

implantation

Back 340

The process by which a zygote, which has migrated down the mother's fallopian tube into the uterus, becomes attached to the uterine lining.

Front 341

implementation

Back 341

In Super's theory, completion of education along with entry into full-time employment that is the final step in the exploratory stage.

Front 342

incremental models

Back 342

Theoretical models in which change is considered steady and specifiic to particular behaviors or mental activities, rather than being marked by major, sweeping reorganizations that affect many behaviors at once, as in stage theories.

Front 343

incremental theorists

Back 343

Usually mastery-oriented people who see intelligence as a dynamic and malleable quality that can be increased by hard work and instruction.

Front 344

indicated prevention

Back 344

A category of prevention efforts that address individuals who show subclinical symptoms of disorders.

Front 345

induction

Back 345

One method parents use to enforce control of children's behavior. Involves use of explanation, giving reasons for rules and appealing to children's desires to be grown-up. The most effective way to promote the internalization of rules.

Front 346

indulgent parenting

Back 346

Also called permissive parenting, it is a parenting style that describes parents who are high on responsiveness but low on demandingness.

Front 347

industry

Back 347

In Erikson's theory, as aspect of self-concept that develops as a function of the first work experiences in childhood. A belief in one's ability to master the skills and tools needed to be productive and an expectation of pleasure in completion of challenging work.

Front 348

infantile amnesia

Back 348

The difficulty people experience remembering events in their lives before they were 3 or 4 years old.

Front 349

inferior colliculi

Back 349

Small structures in the mid-brain involved in receiving sensory input from the ears.

Front 350

influence

Back 350

The process by which a peer group can cause an individual to conform to the norms of the group.

Front 351

information processing theories

Back 351

Theories that tend to liken human cognitive functioning to computer processing of information.

Front 352

initial commitment

Back 352

Position 7 in Perry's model that, taken together with multiple commitments (Position 8) and resolve (Position 9), suggests a flowering of the commitments anticipated in Positions 5 and 6. Changes in thinking are more qualitative than structural.

Front 353

inner speech

Back 353

Internal, subvocal dialogue that in Vygotsky's theory facilitates thinking.

Front 354

instrumental aggression

Back 354

Using force or threat to obtain possession of a desired object or goal.

Front 355

intention

Back 355

A mental state, such as a plan or a desire that is the source of voluntary action.

Front 356

Shortness of Breath, feeble cough, watery sputum, weak voice, spontaneous sweating, bright white complexion, propensity to catching colds, tiredness, Pale or normal colored, Empty, especially in the right front position.

Back 356

LUNG QI DEFICIENCY
Si jun zi Tang
Huang qi
wu Wei zi
Yu Ping Feng San (Wei qi Def)

Front 357

internalization

Back 357

The process by which children adopt adults' standards and rules as their own.

Front 358

internalizing problems

Back 358

Problem behavior that involves negative feelings about self and other symptoms of depression.

Front 359

interneuron

Back 359

One of two main types of neurons in systems of neurons. These have short projections (e.g., short axons) and affect other cells relatively close to the circuit of which they are a part.

Front 360

interpersonal orientation

Back 360

The way an individual characteristically interacts on a social level.

Front 361

intersensory integration (or intermodal perception)

Back 361

The notion that the senses are already somewhat related very early in infancy, perhaps at birth, and that when babies perceive an object in one way, they can construct some notion of the object's other perceptual characteristics.

Front 362

intersex

Back 362

One or more categories of gender identity along a continuum from "male" to "female", based on subtle physical variations (nondimorphism) in internal and external reproductive organs, sex chromosomes, and hormones.

Front 363

intimacy

Back 363

A quality of interpersonal relating through which partners share personal thoughts, feelings, and other important aspects of themselves with each other. True intimacy is marked by openness, affection, and trust.

Front 364

intrapersonal models

Back 364

Drawing on theories of attachment or personality, this model emphasizes the contribution of one's personal history or temperament to the success or failure of relationships.

Front 365

invincibility fable

Back 365

A feeling of being invulnerable, or even immortal that can be part of an adolescent's personal fable.

Front 366

irritability or negative emotionality

Back 366

The infant's tendency to cry, squirm, and otherwise react with fussiness to negative or frustrating events. An aspect of infant temperament.

Front 367

just world

Back 367

Beliefs that the world is fair and that people in it get what they deserve.

Front 368

karyotype

Back 368

A display of the actual chromosomes from human body cells, photographed under a microscope and laid out in matching pairs.

Front 369

keeper of meaning (vs. rigidity)

Back 369

A stage of life that Vaillant added to Erikson's sequence of stages, characterizing late middle adulthood when the adult expands his generative concerns beyond just making a productive contribution, to actually preserve something that is part of the culture and, in doing so, establish the meaningfulness of the work or contributions he has made.

Front 370

kindling-behavioral sensitization

Back 370

Phenomenon characterized by progressive illness severity or illness incidence following an initial illness episode due to increased sensitivity to stressful triggers.

Front 371

kinkeeper

Back 371

The person in an extended family who helps the generations maintain contact with one another.

Front 372

knowledge base

Back 372

An individual's mentally stored information. Adults generally have a larger base for most domains of knowledge than children do.

Front 373

kwashiorkor

Back 373

A condition occurring in children who suffer severe protein and calorie shortages, which is characterized by stunted growth, a protuberant belly, and extreme apathy. Although therapeutic diets can reverse some effects, cognitive impairments are likely to persist.

Front 374

lactase

Back 374

An enzyme necessary for digesting milk.

Front 375

late multiplicity

Back 375

Position 4 in Perry's model in which students fully realize that even experts differ among themselves in regard to what is true. Students handle this realization by embracing either the oppositional or relative subordinate response to late multiplicity.

Front 376

latency stage

Back 376

The fourth of Freud's psychosexual stages, beginning around age 5, during which the id's energy is not especially linked to any particular pleasure or body part, and the potential conflicts among the three aspects of personality are largely latent and unexpressed.

Front 377

launching period

Back 377

The time when emerging adults begin to move away from home and become more self-sufficient.

Front 378

legacy-leaving stage

Back 378

In Schaie's theory, a late life stage when the mind is sound but fraility signals that life is ending. Individuals often work on establishing a written or oral account of their lives or of the history of their families to pass on to others.

Front 379

life-course-persistent antisocial pattern

Back 379

A developmental pattern of adolescent antisocial behavior that begins in early childhood and continues throughout life. This pattern is generally associated with early conduct problems, aggressiveness, and academic difficulties.

Front 380

life-course perspective

Back 380

The view that development is influenced by the intersection of chronological age (life time), family-related (family time), and membership in a birth cohort (historical time).

Front 381

life events

Back 381

Category of stressor that is discrete, often traumatic, and with a clear onset.

Front 382

life span development or life span developmental psychology

Back 382

The study of human development from conception to death.

Front 383

life span developmental theories or models

Back 383

A type of multidimensional theory that emphasizes the continuity of developmental processes from birth through death. Developmental change, seen as adaptation, involves proximal interactions between the organism and the immediate context modified by more distal processes both within the individual and in the environment.

Front 384

life structure

Back 384

A pattern of relationships between the self and the external world, such as relationships to one's spouse, lover, family, occupation, religion, leisure, and so on.

Front 385

limbic system

Back 385

A collection of structures in the brain that includes the hippocampus, amygdala, septum, thalamus, and hypothalamus. These structures produce feelings such as pleasure, pain, anger, sexuality, fear, and affection. Referred to as the "emotional brain" and works in concert with other parts of the brain, such as the frontal lobes.

Front 386

longitudinal

Back 386

A study design in which one group of subjects is measured several times as they grow older, eliminating cohort differences.

Front 387

long-term memory

Back 387

An almost unlimited mental store of knowledge.

Front 388

looking-glass self

Back 388

According to Cooley, a self-concept that develops from the reflected appraisals of others, primarily attachment figures.

Front 389

loss-focused grief

Back 389

Confronting the painful reality of death, expressing sadness, and gradually desensitizing oneself to the reminders of loss that can lead to rumination or excessive preoccupation and, often, great distress.

Front 390

love withdrawal

Back 390

One method parents use to enforce control of children's behavior. Involves parents withdrawing attention or affection, expressing disappointment or disillusionment with a child, turning away from a child, cutting off verbal or emotional contact, or enforcing separations. Generates high anxiety and elicits immediate compliance.

Front 391

low birth weight (LBW)

Back 391

A newborn weight of less than 5.5 lbs, often related to premature birth. Approximately 16% of infants in the United States are born with disorders related to prematurity and LBW, the leading cause of death for neonates. Preterm /LBW infants may have chronic medical problems such as respiratory infections, delays in achievement of developmental milestones, behavioral problems, feeding problems, low IQ, or learning problems.

Front 392

lowest observable adverse effect level

Back 392

A level or prenatal alcohol exposure at which a fetus will experience some functional impairment but is not likely to sustain structural malformations.

Front 393

macrosystem

Back 393

In Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model, the customs and character of the larger culture that help shape the microsystems.

Front 394

maintenance hypothesis

Back 394

The view that couples typically work hard to maintain their favorable beliefs about each other, despite the inevitable challenges of marriage. Positive illusions support the relationship, and people are often reluctant to abandon them to face reality.

Front 395

maintenance or resilience

Back 395

In life span developmental theory, a kind of adaptation that involves finding ways to continue functioning at the same level in the face of challenges or to restore one's functioning after suffering some loss.

Front 396

maintenance stage

Back 396

In Super's theory, a stage from about age 45 to 64, when an individual makes ongoing adjustments to improve her work situation, often achieveing more advanced status and seniority.

Front 397

rainy

Back 397

ممطر

Hint 397

ماطِر

Front 398

marker events

Back 398

Events that are used as criteria for adulthood, including completing formal education, entering the adult workforce, leaving the family home, getting married, and becoming a parent.

Front 399

mastery orientation

Back 399

An orientation to failure in which individuals move forward optimistically, assuming that they can succeed with further effort. They seem to construe failure as a challenge rather than as an obstacle.

Front 400

maturity demands

Back 400

Parents' requirements that children perform behaviors that are suitable to their level of maturity.

Front 401

maturity gap

Back 401

A time in adolescence when physical maturity is achieved but social maturity is not. Adolescents may mimic the behavior of more advanced peers to possess the symbolic trappings of adult status (sexual intimacy, material possessions, autonomy, and respect from parents).

Front 402

means-end behavior

Back 402

A type of intentional behavior that characterizes infants by 8 to 12 months. Babies divert their attention from a goal, such as grasping a toy, in order to produce another action that will help achieve the goal.

Front 403

mechanistic view

Back 403

The perspective that individuals are passively affected by external events. They are thus highly malleable and receptive to outside intervention.

Front 404

mediated learning

Back 404

A central concept in Vygotsky's theory. The child's acquisition of knowledge is "mediated" in the sense that it is highly influenced by the surrounding environment and culture.

Front 405

mediating variables

Back 405

Intermediate links in a causal chain. For example, if early poverty causes reading problems in school, and reading problems cause later depression, then reading problems serve as a mediating variable.

Front 406

mediation

Back 406

In Vygotsky's theory, the intermediary role of other people in determining the meaning of signs and symbols, like words, which in turn affect the child's thinking.

Front 407

medulla

Back 407

A brain structure found in the hind-brain that helps to regulate functions which are basic for survival, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration.

Front 408

meisosis

Back 408

A special kind of cell division whereby germ cells located in the ovaries and testes divide and form four new cells, each containing only 23 chromosomes, one member of each pair.

Front 409

melanin

Back 409

A pigment that affects eye color.

Front 410

"Me" self-concept

Back 410

The known part of the self that is the object of one's own or others' observations.

Front 411

memory strategies

Back 411

Potentially conscious activities a person may voluntarily carry out to remember something.

Front 412

menarche

Back 412

A girl's first menstruation.

Front 413

menopause

Back 413

The cessation of menstruation that usually begins in the 40s and continues for at least 10 years.

Front 414

mesosystem

Back 414

In Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model, the network or microsystems that relate with and modify one another.

Front 415

messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA)

Back 415

The organic compound that cells synthesize by copying strands of DNA. The sequence of bases in a gene is replicated in the mRNA, and then the RNA serves as a "messenger" to the cell from the gene, guiding the cell's construction of a protein.

Front 416

meta-analysis

Back 416

An analytic tool for assessing the effects of variables in which data from a large number of studies on the same topic are analyzed together to determine which effects are consistent across studies and what the strength of those effects are.

Front 417

metacognition

Back 417

The ability to think about and understand one's own cognitive processes and their effects.

Front 418

method of control

Back 418

A technique that parents use to enforce control of their children's behavior. The three primary methods are power assertion, love withdrawal, and induction.

Front 419

microsystem

Back 419

In Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model, the immediate environment where proximal processes are played out.

Front 420

midbrain

Back 420

A set of brain structures that are between hindbrain and forebrain and include the superior colliculi, inferior colliculi, and the substantia nigra.

Front 421

mindfulness

Back 421

Intentional, nonjudgemental awareness of the present moment.

Front 422

minimum sufficiency principle

Back 422

Long-term internalization of rules in children is best facilitated by mild power assertion, rather than harsh power assertion.

Front 423

mirror neurons

Back 423

These neurons are activated both when a person performs a particular action and also when that person observes someone else performing that action. They appear to help with the understanding of others' actions.

Front 424

mitigation

Back 424

When the perpetrator of a crime is guilty and is held responsible for the crime but is considered less than fully blameworthy. Mitigation applies not only to degree of culpability but also to degree of punishment.

Front 425

mitosis

Back 425

A kind of cell division that produces two new cells identical to the original cell.

Front 426

modal personal orienttion

Back 426

In Holland's theory, an aspect of personality that is a typical and preferred style or approach to dealing with social and environmental tasks. Most jobs or careers will be compatible with one of the six orientations: realistic, investigative, artistic, social enterprising, and conventional.

Front 427

modeling

Back 427

Learning by imitation. Occurs when an individual repeats an act or sequence of actions that she has observed another individual (the model) performing.

Front 428

moderating variables

Back 428

Causal factors that interact with other causal variables, altering and sometimes even eliminating the effects of other variables altogether.

Front 429

molecular genetics

Back 429

The study of what genes do and how their products influence the body and behavior.

Front 430

morality of caring

Back 430

A focus on concern for others (as opposed to establishing justice) when making moral evaluations decisions and when evaluating decisions of others.

Front 431

morality of justice

Back 431

A focus on establishing justice (as opposed to concern for others) when making moral decisions and when evaluating decisions made by others.

Front 432

moral rules

Back 432

The standards used to address fundamental issues of justice, welfare, and rights, such as rules about stealing, hurting others, or sharing. Rules of behavior that are relatively universal as opposed to being culturally based.

Front 433

moratorium

Back 433

One of Marcia's four identity status categories in which individuals are actively involved in exploring possible life choices, but not having made any firm commitments to them.

Front 434

multidimensional theories

Back 434

A class of theoretical models in which theorists consider development to be the result of the relationships among many causal components. They generally apply to all domains of development from the cognitive to the social and suggest that there are layers, or levels, of interacting causes for behavioral change: physical/lmolecular, biological, psychological, social, and cultural. These models may also be called transactional, relational, systems, or bioecological models.

Front 435

multi-infarct dementia

Back 435

A number of minor strokes that gradually do sufficient damage to cause dementia.

Front 436

multiple commitments

Back 436

Position 8 in Perry's model that, taken together with initial commitment (Position 7) and resolve (Position 9), suggests a flowering of the commitments anticipated in Positions 5 and 6. Changes in thinking are more qualitative than structural.

Front 437

multiplicity (prelegitimate)

Back 437

Position 2 in Perry's model that is characterized by the student's first encounters with multiplicity, that is, multiple ideas, multiple answers to life's questions, or multiple points of view. Individuals in this stage face confusion, yet maintain the belief that some "authority" possesses the ultimate truth or right answers.

Front 438

multiplicity (subordinate)

Back 438

Position 3 in Perry's model in which the individual grudingly acknowledges the reality and legitimacy of multiple perspectives. Individuals in this stage find it more difficult to deny that reasonable people can differ in their perspectives on life, and people who hold different views are not so easily dismissed as being wrong.

Front 439

mutation

Back 439

A change in the chemical structure of an existing gene, sometimes occurring spontaneously and sometimes occurring due to environmental influences, such as exposure to radiation or toxic chemicals.

Front 440

myelination

Back 440

The phenomenon in which glial cells wrap themselves around the axons of neurons, providing an insulating sheath that facilitates the conduction of electrical impulses.

Front 441

narrative

Back 441

A story or event description that conveys the full sense of an experience or gets at the point of an event while taking into account what the listener needs to hear to understand.

Front 442

narrative skill

Back 442

The ability to tell a coherent story.

Front 443

narrow socialization

Back 443

Socialization more characteristic of nonindustrialized cultures that exert extensive control over the expression of behaviors that violate social standards and expect substantial conformity from young members of the society.

Front 444

needs-based reasoning

Back 444

Reasoning about other people's needs in which one must weigh one's own personal needs against those of others.

Front 445

needs oriented

Back 445

Describes the understanding that another person's need is a good reason for helping, usually characteristic of children sometime in the elementary school years.

Front 446

negative affectivity

Back 446

The state or trait tendency to experience nervousness, fear, anger, sadness, contempt, or guilt.

Front 447

negative affect reciprocity

Back 447

A tendency for negative emotions in one partner to follow from the other partner's negativity.

Front 448

negative correlation

Back 448

A relationship between variables in which they change together but in opposite directions, so that as one increases, the other decreases.

Front 449

negative reinforcement

Back 449

When a behavior is rewarded by the removal of aversive consequences. For example, if a parent insists that a child clean his room, but relents when the child has a temper tantrum, the withdrawal of the aversive demand is a negative reinforcement, rewarding the child's temper tantrum.

Front 450

neglected

Back 450

A sociometric category that includes those children who receive few nominations, either positive or negative, from their peers. Neglected children are characterized by their low level of social impact.

Front 451

neglecting-uninvolved style

Back 451

An interactive parenting style that combines low levels of warmth (emotional distance) and low levels of control or demandingness, so that parents invest very little time or attention in a child. Associated with many negative child outcomes.

Front 452

neoPiagetians

Back 452

Theorists who explain Piaget's stages or revise the stages using many information processing concepts. These theorists attempt to combine the best components of both Piagetian and information processing approaches.

Front 453

nerve growth factor

Back 453

A substance found within the brain that is absorbed by neurons and aids in the process of synapse production.

Front 454

neural pruning

Back 454

A gradual process in brain development that continues through adolescence into young adulthood in which neurons die off and many synaptic connections are selectively discarded.

Front 455

neural tube

Back 455

A structure that represents the first step in the development of an embryo's central nervous system. It is formed when a sheet of cells from the embryo's upper surface turns inward and curls into a tube.

Front 456

neurons

Back 456

The building blocks of the brain, these nerve cells are specialized for the transmission of electrical impulses.

Front 457

neuroplasticity

Back 457

The malleability of the human brain, its capacity to change and grow especially in response to new environmental input. Includes the capacity of neurons to shift functions to compensate for damage to other cells or because they have been transplanted to a different part of the brain.

Front 458

neuroticism (N)

Back 458

One of the Big 5 personality traits that is described using synonyms including: tense, touchy, self-pitying, unstable, anxious, and worrying.

Front 459

neurotransmitters

Back 459

Chemical substances found in the nervous system which communicate messages between neurons when released. The chemical message, once picked up by the dendrites, the cell body or the axon of a neighboring neuron, is read by that cell as a message to "fire" or "stop firing".

Front 460

neurulation

Back 460

The prenatal formation of a neural tube that begins the development of the central nervous system.

Front 461

niche picking

Back 461

The process whereby children, as they grow older, are less constrained by their parents' choices and choose environments that are compatible with their interests. These environments then provide support for and probably strengthen those interests.

Front 462

no observable effect level

Back 462

The threshold of alcohol ingestion by a pregnant mother above which the fetus will experience some functional impairment.

Front 463

nonacademic self-concept

Back 463

One of two major divisions of a child's general self-concept that includes his view of self in the social, emotional, and physical domains.

Front 464

nondeclarative knowledge

Back 464

Knowledge that one cannot adequately put into words and might not enter awareness, including procedural knowledge, knowing how to do things.

Front 465

nonnormative changes

Back 465

Changes that are expected, such as the death of a family member.

Front 466

nonshared environment

Back 466

Different environmental input that is considered to be responsible for the degree to which two individuals differ on a given trait.

Front 467

norepinephrine

Back 467

Also called noradrenaline, it is one of the stress hormones released by the adrenal glands and has no effects on heart rate and other "fight or flight" responses in the body. Also functions as a neurotransmitter.

Front 468

nuclear family tradition

Back 468

A body of work that examines the outcomes of a person's attachment to his primary caregiver in infancy, once the person becomes an adult.

Front 469

nucleus

Back 469

In the brain, a cluster of cells creating a functional structure.

Front 470

number conservation task

Back 470

A procedure designed by Piaget to test children's understanding of number. Children must be able to recognize that the number of items in a set does not change when the appearance of the set changes; for example, when a row of buttons is spread out or bunched together.

Front 471

object concept

Back 471

Understanding of what an object is, including recognition that an object has properties that can stimulate all of our senses and that an object has "permanence" - it continues to exist even when we do not perceive it.

Front 472

object permanence

Back 472

The fact that objects have a separate existence from the perceiver; that is, they continue to exist even when no one perceives them.

Front 473

observational learning (or modeling)

Back 473

Learning by imitation. Occurs when an individual repeats an act or sequence of actions that she has observed another individual (the model) performing.

Front 474

occipital lobe

Back 474

The part of the cerebrum, located at the back of each hemisphere that processes visual information.

Front 475

Oedipus complex

Back 475

In Freud's theory, the belief that young boys direct their sexual urges toward their mothers because they are most strongly attached to their mothers as primary caretakers. This desire for the mother, to usurp her time, to be physically close to her, puts a boy in competititon with his father for her affections. The boy fears that his more powerful father will retaliate with a physical punishment that fits the crime - castration. The boy is so terrified by the prospect of his father's retaliation that he redirects his energy into pleasing his father by identifying with him.

Front 476

ontogeny

Back 476

The development of organisms.

Front 477

open identity domains

Back 477

Areas, such as those involving personal relationships, in which individuals assert much control and can be successful in achieving commitment.

Front 478

openness (O)

Back 478

One of the Big 5 personality traits that is described using synonyms including: creative, artistic, curious, insightful, original, and wide-ranging interests.

Front 479

operant

Back 479

An accidental or random action.

Front 480

operant conditioning

Back 480

The process by which a person learns to produce a formerly random behavior (or operant) in response to a cue because the behavior was previously reinforced in that situation.

Front 481

oppositional

Back 481

In Perry's theory, a response to late multiplicity characterized by legitimizing multiplicity as one pole of a new kind of dualism and the right-wrong dualism of position 1 (strict dualism) at the other end of the new continuum. Allows individuals to maintain a dualistic either-or structure in their thinking.

Front 482

oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)

Back 482

A pattern of hostile, negative, or defiant behaviors, such as arguing with adults, spitefulness, or throwing tantrums.

Front 483

optimization

Back 483

A process of finding ways to enhance the achievement of remaining goals or finding environments that are enhancing that is key to successful development.

Front 484

oral fixation

Back 484

In Freud's personality theory, an excessive need for oral pleasures (such as eating or talking) that results from extreme denial or excessive indulgence of them during the oral stage.

Front 485

oral stage

Back 485

The first of Freud's psychosexual stage, corresponding to the 1st year of life, when Freud believed that a disproportionate amount of id energy is invested in drives satisfied through the mouth.

Front 486

organismic theories

Back 486

A class of theories characterized by the view that human beings are active initiators of their own development.

Front 487

organization strategy

Back 487

A memory strategy that involves sorting items to be learned on some meaningful basis, such as grouping the names by region.

Front 488

orienting response

Back 488

In infants, a set of behaviors that suggest that the baby is attending to a stimulus. May include head turn toward the stimulus, looking, decreased heart rate, and increased sucking.

Front 489

orthogenetic principle

Back 489

The notion that as behavior becomes differentiated or elaborated, the multiple behaviors that develop also are hierarchically organized or controlled by higher levels of functioning. For example, with age the generalized distress of newborns differentiates into several different negative emotions, such as anger and sadness, the expression of which is controlled by higher brain processes.

Front 490

osteoarthritis

Back 490

The most common form of arthritis, which involves the thinning, fraying, and cracking of cartilage at the ends of bones.

Front 491

other-directed coping behaviors

Back 491

Efforts to deal with stress that appear to be aimed at changing the behaviors of others, such as when infants use facial expressions, movements, and verbalizations that seem designed to get a caregiver to respond positively in an interaction.

Front 492

other-transforming

Back 492

An immature interpersonal style in which an individual tries to dominate or coerce a friend into meeting his needs. Acting to change or transform the other; can involve bullying, aggression, or manipulation.

Front 493

outcome variable

Back 493

The variable that is said to be affected by the cause of a given phenomenon.

Front 494

ovaries

Back 494

Female gonads that primarily produce estrogen and progesterone, but also produce lesser amounts of androgens (such as testosterone). Site of egg (ovum) production in females.

Front 495

ovum

Back 495

Reproductive egg cell, containing only 23 chromosomes, produced in and released by the ovaries of females.

Front 496

pair therapy

Back 496

Selman's approach to treating children and adolescents with social interactive difficulties. Two individuals with equally ineffective social styles, such as a controlling child and a fearful one, meet regularly with a helper who encourages them to be effectively assertive and empathic.

Front 497

palliative care

Back 497

Comfort care that involves services provided by caregivers from several disciplines embodying a comprehensive approach to care that addresses pain management, emotional and spiritual care, and a psychological support for caregivers and survivors.

Front 498

parent centered

Back 498

Describes parents whose interactions with their children are driven by parental needs rather than focusing on children's needs. Parents with this approach may make hostile attributions when children's needs are out of line with their own.

Front 499

parental monitoring

Back 499

Consistent parental supervision.

Front 500

parenting styles

Back 500

Approaches that characterize parents' typical interactions with and attitudes toward their children. Four styles have been identified, combining and crossing the positive and negative poles of two parenting dimensions - warmth and control. These styles are often predictive of child characteristics.

Front 501

parietal lobe

Back 501

A part of the cerebrum located between the frontal lobe (at the front of the cerebrum) and the occipital lobe (at the back of the cerebrum) and above the temporal lobe (on the side of the cerebrum) of each hemisphere. It processes somatosensory information such as touch, temperature, and pain.

Front 502

passion

Back 502

An element of love that refers to erotic attraction or feelings.

Front 503

passive gene effects

Back 503

The effects of parents' genes on the kind of environment that they create for their children. When these effects are compatible with a child's own hereditary tendencies, the child's genes are a passive source of environmental influence.

Front 504

peer/romantic partner tradition

Back 504

A body of work that focuses on the peer attachments of adults by questioning how early attachments impact the quality of romantic and friendship relationships in adulthood.

Front 505

penis envy

Back 505

According to Freud's theory, a girl's desire to have what she naively assumes is the greater genital pleasure that must come with having the external genitalia of a man.

Front 506

period of the embryo

Back 506

Lasting from the 4th through the 8th week of gestation, the time that most of the body's organ systems and structures are forming.

Front 507

period of the fetus

Back 507

Lasting from the 9th week of gestation until birth, the time of rapid growth and further differentiation when the reproductive system forms, gains in body weight occur, and the brain and nervous system continue to develop.

Front 508

permissive style

Back 508

An interactive parenting style that combines moderate to high levels of warmth (positive emotional climate, sensitivity and responsivity) with low levels of control or demandingness. Associated with impusive behavior and low levels of self-reliance in children.

Front 509

personal fable

Back 509

A distorted view of one's uniqueness that is a feature of adolescents' egocentrism.

Front 510

personal rules

Back 510

Rules about areas of functioning that individuals or families might have standards about, such as choices of friends or recreational activities or participation in family life, that are not governed by formal social rules in Western societies.

Front 511

"the person who" fallacy

Back 511

Refuting a well-documented finding by calling on knowledge of a person who is an exception.

Front 512

perspective taking

Back 512

Consideration of the viewpoints of others; putting oneself, metaphorically, in the shoes of another and seeing self and others from that alternative stance.

Front 513

phallic stage

Back 513

The third of Freud's psychosexual stages, lasting from age 3 to about 5, in which id energy is focused primarily in the genital region. This stage draws the greatest parental discipline, leads to feelings of guilt and the development of the superego, and can have long-lasting effects on how a child copes with postpubertal sexual needs.

Front 514

phenotype

Back 514

The aspect of a genetic blueprint that is actually expressed in the physical and behavioral characteristics of an individual.

Front 515

phenylketonuria (PKU)

Back 515

A genetic disorder resulting from the absence of an important enzyme, without which the amino acid phenylalanine cannot be metabolized. Unless the victim's diet is severely restricted, phenylalanine soon accumulates in the body and causes mental retardation.

Front 516

Phineas Gage matrix

Back 516

Syndrome related to injury of the frontal cortex. Consists of cognitive dysfunctions (such as poor planning, inadequate decision making, inability to take another's perspective, and problems in sustaining employment) and emotional problems (such as shallow affect, lack of an enriched emotional life, lack of passion and initiative, and a diminished sense of pleasure and pain).

Front 517

phonology

Back 517

The sound system of a language; includes rules for arranging the basic sounds or "phonemes" of the language.

Front 518

physician-assisted suicide

Back 518

The prescribing of medicine that enables patients to take their own lives.

Front 519

Piaget's cognitive development

Back 519

Jean Piaget's theory of the development of cognition, which outlines four childhood stages in which the capacity to think logically about both concrete and abstract concepts evolves.

Front 520

placebo effect

Back 520

Occurs when individuals receiving a placebo (a "dummy" version of a treatment) experience improvement in their symptoms and attribute the improvement to the placebo.

Front 521

placenta

Back 521

A nourishing barrier that surrounds the developing fetus, allowing nutrients from the mother's blood to pass to the fetus's blood while allowing waste to be removed by the mother's blood. Otherwise, it keeps the two circulatory systems separate.

Front 522

plaques

Back 522

In the brain, clumps of insoluble protein that are damaging to neurons and associated with Alzheimer's disease.

Front 523

pleasure principle

Back 523

The pursuit of gratification, which motivates the id in Freud's personality theory.

Front 524

polygenic

Back 524

Describes traits that are affected by the products of multiple gene pairs, often located on different chromosomes, so that any one pair of gene alleles has only a limited effect on a given trait.

Front 525

pons

Back 525

A brain structure located in the hindbrain that is involved in the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle.

Front 526

popular

Back 526

A sociometric category that includes those children who receive many positive nominations and few negative nominations from their peers (have high social preference and high social impact). Popular children are generally well-liked members of the group and have relatively high visibility among their peers.

Front 527

positive affect

Back 527

Tendency to express happy mood states by smiling and laughing especially to social stimuli. An aspect of infant temperament.

Front 528

positive affectivity

Back 528

The state or trait tendency to experience enthusiasm, alertness, joy, confidence, and determination.

Front 529

positive correlation

Back 529

A relationship between variables in which they change in the same direction, either both increasing or both decreasing.

Front 530

postconventional morality

Back 530

Kohlberg's third stage of moral reasoning achieved by some adults in whom what is considered right is defined not by specific rules or laws but by general processes such as democratic principles or individual rights.

Front 531

postformal or fifth-stage thinking

Back 531

Characteristic of a stage beyond Piaget's sequence of stages that describes the changes in logical thinking that might occur in the adult years. Characterized by the ability of the problem solver to coordinate contradictory formal operational approaches to the same problem. The postformal thinker can understand the logic of each of the contradictory perspectives and integrate the perspectives into a larger whole.

Front 532

postrational skepticism

Back 532

A characterization of postformal thought that suggests that the search for absolute truth gives way to a search for arguably good reasons for choosing one belief or course of action over another; an endorsement of the possibility and practicality of making rational commitments in the face of the clear knowledge that other defensible alternatives to one's views continue to exist.

Front 533

posttraumatic growth

Back 533

Positive psychological change experienced as a result of the struggle with highly stressful or traumatic events.

Front 534

posttraumatic stress disorder

Back 534

An anxiety disorder that follows a traumatic event. PTSD is characterized by clinically significant symptoms such as re-experience of the traumatic event, general numbing of responsiveness to others, heightened arousal, disturbed sleep, and so forth.

Front 535

power assertion

Back 535

One method parents use to enforce control of children's behavior. Can involve physical punishment or the threat of physical punishment, or it can involve withdrawal of privileges. Effective for the immediate control of behavior, but over the long term, children show higher levels of anger, aggressiveness and anxiety.

Front 536

pragmatics

Back 536

One of the aspects of language that children must learn that goes beyond learning semantics and syntax and involves using the language effectively to communicate. Includes skills such as crafting a narrative and "code switching", using different language styles in different contexts.

Front 537

preconventional morality

Back 537

Kohlberg's first stage of moral reasoning characterizing middle childhood in which what is right is what avoids punishment, what conforms to the dictates of authority, or what serves one's personal interests.

Front 538

preferential looking paradigm

Back 538

A research technique used with infants. Two visual stimuli are presented simultaneously on a split screen and babies' eye movements are recorded to assess their preferences for one stimulus over the other.

Front 539

premoral stage

Back 539

In Piaget's theory of moral development, characterizes preschoolers who are unconcerned about established rules or standards.

Front 540

preoccupied (insecure)

Back 540

An attachment style classifying adults who provide transcripts in the Adult Attachment Inventory that are not collaborative and that are characterized by very long, incoherent, egocentric responses that shift from topic to topic. They indicate substantial enmeshment or preoccupation with parents, registered by angry, accusatory language or by conflicted descriptions that connote ambivalence and confusion about early relationships. Their children tend to have anxious-ambivalent attachments. In Bartholomew's typology, these individuals are emotionally demanding, anxious about gaining acceptance, fearful of rejections, and preoccupied with relationships.

Front 541

preoperational egocentrism

Back 541

The tendency of preschoolers to be aware only of their own perspective. Demonstrated in their expectations that others will know what they know, believe what they believe, and so on.

Front 542

preoperational stage

Back 542

In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the time period from approximately age 2 to 7 when children are capable of representational thought but appear to be prelogical in their thinking.

Front 543

pre-self

Back 543

An infant's early inklings of the permanence of her body, its separateness from others, and the rhythms of interpersonal connections.

Front 544

prevention science

Back 544

A new and evolving multidisciplinary mix of human development, psychopathology, epidemiology, education, and criminology that offers us useful guidelines for understanding what constitutes effective prevention.

Front 545

primary control

Back 545

Control efforts that are attempts to affect the immediate environment beyond ourselves.

Front 546

primary prevention

Back 546

An attempt to forestall the development of problems by promoting health and wellness in the general population through group-oriented interventions.

Front 547

primary sexual characteristics

Back 547

The physical traits directly involved in reproduction, such as the genitalia.

Front 548

principle of equifinality

Back 548

Many early developmental pathways can produce similar outcomes.

Front 549

principle of multifinality

Back 549

The same developmental pathways may result in a wide range of possible outcomes.

Front 550

procedural knowledge

Back 550

Describes the often unconscious, nondeclarative knowledge of how to do things that underlies many physical skills.

Front 551

production deficiency

Back 551

Failure to use a memory strategy one has knowledge of even in a situation where it is ordinarily helpful.

Front 552

progeria

Back 552

A fatal genetic disorder that causes rapid aging, so that by late childhood its victims are dying of "old age". Because progeria sufferers do not survive long enough to reproduce, the disease must be caused by a genetic mutation.

Front 553

progesterone

Back 553

A hormone involved in the reproductive cycle, especially in females.

Front 554

projection neuron

Back 554

One of two main types of neurons in systems of neurons. These have long projections, especially axons that extend far away from the cell body.

Front 555

prosocial behavior or altruism

Back 555

Voluntarily acting in ways that seem intended to benefit someone else.

Front 556

protective factors

Back 556

Aspects of the organism or the environment that moderate the negative effects of risk.

Front 557

proteins

Back 557

The chemical building blocks of the body that are constructed when cells follow the codes provided by genes.

Front 558

protest

Back 558

The second phase in the grieving process where bereaved individuals may experience periods of obsessive yearning or searching for the lost loved one as well as bouts of restlessness or irritability.

Front 559

proximal processes

Back 559

Reciprocal interactions between a person and her immediate external environment, including other people, the physical environment, or informational sources such as books or movies. In Bronfenbrenner's biological model, all developments are a function of these processes.

Front 560

proximity maintenance

Back 560

One of three purposes of the attachment system. Bonds between infant and caregiver encourage and sustain physical closeness.

Front 561

proximo-distal

Back 561

The "near to far" (or inner to outer) direction of prenatal development.

Front 562

prudential consequences

Back 562

Negative effects on an individual's health, safety, or future as a result of an action that violates some social expectation or rule. Getting arrested or having an accident would be a prudential consequence of driving too fast.

Front 563

psychological well-being

Back 563

Feeling a sense of purpose, growth, and mastery, or that one is striving for realization of one's true potential.

Front 564

psychoneuroimmunology

Back 564

The study of the interactions between the central nervous system, the immune system, and behavior.

Front 565

psychosocial development

Back 565

Change with age in the psychological processes of interpersonal understanding, skills, and values that affect an individual's capacity for interpersonal relationships, including friendships.

Front 566

puberty

Back 566

A process of sexual maturing in late childhood related to a wide range of emotional, behavioral, and social changes.

Front 567

qualitative research

Back 567

Any kind of research that does not use statistical procedures or quantitative methods to arrive at conclusions.

Front 568

racial group

Back 568

Groups of people, like Blacks, Whites, and Asians, who have historically been assumed to be genetically different, identifiable by variations in hair, skin color, bone structure, or other physiological markers. Genetic indicators of race have not been found, so that racial groups appear to be a social construction.

Front 569

reactive attachment disorder (RAD)

Back 569

A lack of ability to form affectional bonds with other people and a pattern of markedly disturbed social relationships. RAD can result when a child receives grossly neglectful or pathological care in the early years.

Front 570

reality monitoring

Back 570

The ability to distinguish what is imagined from what is real.

Front 571

reality principle

Back 571

A focus on understanding the world and behavioral consequences that leads to sensible and self-protective behavior. In Freud's personality theory, the ego operates on this principle.

Front 572

recall

Back 572

Remembering information or events that are not currently available to the senses. Requires the ability to mentally represent the absent information.

Front 573

recency

Back 573

A salient characteristic of self-memories. The tendency to remember something that has happened to us recently better than something that happened in the more distant past.

Front 574

recognition

Back 574

Remembering in the sense of knowling that information currently available to the senses has been previously experienced.

Front 575

reflective judgment

Back 575

In Kitchener's theory of the development of problem solving, the analysis of the elements of a problem and justification of problem solutions.

Front 576

reflective practice

Back 576

A method used by counselors that emphasizes careful consideration of theoretical and empirical sources of knowledge, as well as one's own beliefs and assumptions, as a precursor to practice.

Front 577

refusal of treatment

Back 577

Patients' refusal of any food, water, or medical treatment that prolongs life.

Front 578

regulation of loss

Back 578

In life span developmental theory, a kind of adaptive functioning that involves reorganizing the way we behave by adjusting our expectations and accepting a lower level of functioning.

Front 579

rehearsal

Back 579

A strategy for remembering that usually involves continuing to actively process to-be-remembered material, like repeating it to oneself.

Front 580

reinforcement

Back 580

An event that an individual experiences as pleasurable or rewarding, which increases the frequency of a behavior that occurred immediately before the pleasurable event.

Front 581

reintegrative stage

Back 581

In Schaie's theory, the elder years when individuals do not often need to acquire new domains of knowledge or to figure out new ways of applying what they know. Many are motivated to conserve energy (physical and psychological). Cognitive efforts are aimed at solving immediate, practical problems that seem critically important to daily functioning.

Front 582

rejected

Back 582

A sociometric category that includes those children who receive many negative nominations and few positive nominations from their peers. Rejected children are typically disliked (low social preference) but have generally high visibility (high social impact).

Front 583

rejected-aggressive

Back 583

Describes children who are rejected because they aggress against their peers.

Front 584

rejected-withdrawn

Back 584

Describes children who are rejected because they withdraw from their peers.

Front 585

relatedness

Back 585

In self-determination theory, one of three basic needs. Feeling that one is important to others and valued enough to be sensitively and reponsively cared for, from infancy onward.

Front 586

relational aggression

Back 586

A type of aggression in which relationships are manipulated and/or damaged in order to hurt an individual.

Front 587

relational theories

Back 587

Another term for multidimensional models.

Front 588

relative subordinate

Back 588

In Perry's theory, a response to late multiplicity in which students (primarily under the guidance of authority) begin to understand that some opinions are more legitimate than others. The value of a perspective is now understood to be related to the supporting arguments and evidence for the position.

Front 589

relativistic thought

Back 589

The essence of postformal thought in which several truth systems exist describing the reality of the same event, and they appear to be logically equivalent.

Front 590

releasers

Back 590

Infant physical characteristics that elicit nurturant responses from adults, such as small body size, large eyes, and large head size relative to the total body size.

Front 591

reorganization

Back 591

The last phase in the grieving process in which the grieving individual discovers ways to hold on to the memory of the deceased and integrate that memory into their current life and new attachments.

Front 592

reorganizational stage

Back 592

In Schaie's theory, a stage of early old age, when responsibilities narrow as children grow up and retirement becomes an option. Flexibility in problem solving is needed to create a satisfying, meaningful environment for the rest of life, but the focus tends to narrow to a changed set of personal goals and needs.

Front 593

reorientation

Back 593

The third stage of retirement, which is a time of active trial and error. The retiree seeks solutions to the problems that retirement presents and tries strategies for building a satisfactory life.

Front 594

representational thought

Back 594

The capacity to think about things or events that are not currently stimulating one's senses. Utilizes mental images or symbols to "re-present" the absent experience.

Front 595

representations of interactions (or RIGs)

Back 595

A kind of sensorimotor or procedural memory or expectation that infants form of how interactions with others are likely to proceed. These representations are based on repeated experiences and are preverbal and unconscious.

Front 596

resilience (resilient)

Back 596

The quality that permits developmental success for some individuals despite grave setbacks, early adversity, or other risk factors. (Describes a person who has this quality.)

Front 597

resistance phase

Back 597

The second phase in the body's reaction to a stressor, during which the body is moderately aroused, the parasympathetic system takes over, and the body continues to resist the effects of the stressor.

Front 598

resolve

Back 598

Position 9 in Perry's model that, taken together with initial commitment (Position 7) and multiple commitments (Position 8), suggests a flowering of the commitments anticipated in Positions 5 and 6. Position 9, although placed at the end of the line, does not imply a static resolution of existential conflict; rather, it characterizes a state of courageous resolve to continue the work of reflecting on one's commitments throughout adulthood.

Front 599

responsible stage

Back 599

In Schaie's theory, the stage of cognitive development faced during middle adulthood in which ill-defined problems remain the norm, but problem solving must now take into account not only one's own personal needs and goals but also those of others in one's life that have become one's responsibility (spouse, children, coworkers, member of the community).

Front 600

restoration-focused grief

Back 600

A type of coping strategy directed toward handling the practical tasks that need to be done to carry on with daily life.

Front 601

retention

Back 601

Staying in college long enough to graduate.

Front 602

reticular activating system

Back 602

A set of brain structures including the reticular formation located in the brain stem that filters out some of the stimuli we perceive and alerts higher structures to "pay attention" to other stimuli.

Front 603

reticular formation

Back 603

A bundle of neural tissue in the brainstem that acts together with other nuclei to form the reticular activating system which affects attention to incoming stimuli.

Front 604

retreat

Back 604

Perry's characterization of the behavior of individuals who move back to dualistic thinking in times of stress to seek the intellectual security of absolute right and wrong.

Front 605

retrieval

Back 605

What we usually mean by remembering, that is, getting information out of mental storage so we can use it.

Front 606

retrieval strategy

Back 606

An approach to finding and recovering information stored in memory. In math, this refers to solving arithmetic problems by recoving a memorized answer (e.g., remembering that 3 plus 2 equals 5 rather than solving the problem).

Front 607

reversible relationship

Back 607

A kind of logical relationship in which one change reverses the effects of another change (and also implies the existence of its reverse). For example, in math, subtraction is the reverse of addition.

Front 608

rhythmicity

Back 608

The predictability of an individual's sleep, feeding, elimination, and other biological cycles. An aspect of infant temperament.

Front 609

risk factors

Back 609

Aspects of the organism or the environment that compromise healthy development.

Front 610

risky behaviors

Back 610

Behaviors that constitute a departure from socially accepted norms or behaviors that pose a threat to the well-being of individuals or groups.

Front 611

role buffering

Back 611

For individuals who participate in multiple roles, such as
"mother", "wife", "caregiver to ailing parent", and "employee", if one role is a source of psychological stress or failure experiences, success and satisfaction in another role may compensate.

Front 612

role strain

Back 612

The stress or strain of meeting obligations that are associated with certain roles (e.g., caregiver).

Front 613

rough-and-tumble play

Back 613

Good-natured physical roughness that is an almost exclusive property of boys' play with boys.

Front 614

rumination

Back 614

A stable, emotion-focused coping style that involves responding to problems by directing attention internally toward negative feelings and thoughts. Rumination includes both cognitive (self-focused cognitions) and affective (increased emotional reactivity) elements.

Front 615

safe haven

Back 615

One of the three purposes of the attachment system. Bonds between infant and caregiver make the caregiver a source of comfort when distressed.

Front 616

sandwich generation

Back 616

Those who carry the double responsibilities of taking care of both an elderly relative and their own children.

Front 617

scaffolding

Back 617

In Vygotsky's theory, the process whereby more advanced thinkers or more capable members of a culture provide novice learners with a supportive temporary prop that enables the novice to learn and to reach higher levels of thinking.

Front 618

scientific concepts

Back 618

In Vygotsky's theory, culturally defined concepts that can provide children with a basis for organizing their thinking in line with the knowledge and skills of the culture.

Front 619

script

Back 619

A schematic representation of the typical features of an event and the order in which they happen.

Front 620

secondary control

Back 620

Control efforts that involve attempts to change ourselves.

Front 621

secondary prevention

Back 621

An attempt to reduce the incidence of disorders among those who are at high risk or to provide treatment to forestall the development of more serious psychopathology in cases that are already established.

Front 622

secondary sexual characteristics

Back 622

Physical traits not directly involved in reproduction but indicative of sex, such as enlarged breasts in females and deeper voices ni males.

Front 623

secure base

Back 623

One of the three purposes of the attachment system. The bond between infant and caregiver provides the infant a protective resource as she develops and learns.

Front 624

securely attached

Back 624

An attachment category describing babies who typically show distress on separation from the mother in the strange situation test, but who greet her happily on her return, usually seeking comfort by reaching to be picked up. Once reassured they tend to return to exploring. In Bartholomew's description of adult attachment categories, describes individuals who expect others to be available and supportive of their needs in close relationships, who are comfortable with emotional closeness, but are also reasonably autonomous.

Front 625

seduction hypothesis

Back 625

Freud's early view that some psychopathology stems from infantile sexual molestation.

Front 626

selection (as an adaptive strategy)

Back 626

A process of narrowing our goals and limiting the domains in which we expend effort that is important for successful development.

Front 627

selection (as a peer group process)

Back 627

The process by which individuals choose to affiliate with others who share similar behaviors or attributes.

Front 628

selective attention

Back 628

Deployment of attention to only a chosen subset of the information available for processing in a situation. Selective attention to information that must be remembered later can be used as a memorization strategy.

Front 629

selective optimization with compensation

Back 629

The three combined processes of successful development according to life span development theory (selection, optimization, and compensation).

Front 630

selective prevention

Back 630

A category of prevention efforts that target individuals at some epidemiological risk.

Front 631

self-system

Back 631

A term currently used in place of the "self" because "self" seems too unidimensional. Includes multiple aspects of the self, such as self-concept, self-regulation, and self-esteem.

Front 632

self-conscious emotions

Back 632

Feelings such as shame, embarrassment, guilt, and pride that become available to toddlers after they develop objective self-awareness, or self-recognition usually late in the 2nd year of life.

Front 633

self-control or behavior regulation

Back 633

Ability to stop the self from performing a proscribed act or to make the self perform an act that is not appealing or attractive in itself.

Front 634

self-determination theory

Back 634

The theory that three basic psychological needs including autonomy, competence, and relatedness motivate our adaptation efforts at any age.

Front 635

self-directed coping behaviors

Back 635

Efforts to deal with stress that appear to be aimed at self comfort. In infants these behaviors include looking away from the source of distress or self-stimulating behavior, such as rocking and sucking.

Front 636

self-efficacy beliefs

Back 636

Beliefs about our ability to exercise control over events that affect our lives.

Front 637

self-enhancing bias

Back 637

The motivation to maintain moderately positive beliefs about oneself which is reflected in a tendency to make comparisons of oneself to people who are similar.

Front 638

self-esteem

Back 638

A person's evaluation of his or her attributes or the positive or negative valence associated with those attributes. In William James's opinion, self-esteem depends on the number of successes we enjoy relative to our aspirations.

Front 639

self-esteem slide

Back 639

A drop in self-esteem presumably experienced by girls at adolescence.

Front 640

self-instruction (or self-monitoring)

Back 640

The clinical and educational practices in which the general goal is to affect some behavior change (such as control of impulsivity or improvement in test-taking skills) by attending to, regulating, and sometimes changing cognitions.

Front 641

self-organizing

Back 641

Filtering incoming information through one's own existing mental constructs and influencing the environment's inputs with one's actions and reactions.

Front 642

self-recognition

Back 642

Awareness of self, usually manifested by the individual's display of self-directed behavior on viewing her own reflection. For example, a child capable of self-recognition will touch a spot of rouge on her nose when she looks in a mirror rather than touching the mirror.

Front 643

self-regulation

Back 643

An advanced and flexible version of self-control. The ability to comply with a request, to initiate and cease activities according to situational demands, to modulate the intensity, frequency, and duration of verbal and motor acts in social and educational settings, to postpone acting on a desired object or goal, and to generate socially approved behavior in the absence of external monitors.

Front 644

self-transforming

Back 644

An immature interpersonal style in which an individual gives in so as to reduce the level of tension. He changes his own behaviors or feelings in order to conform to the needs or demands of another.

Front 645

semantic

Back 645

Describing knolwedge about factual information, rules, and concepts.

Front 646

semantic system

Back 646

An aspect of a language that children must learn, including the words and word parts that express meanings in that language.

Front 647

senescing

Back 647

The process of declining with age or "growing down".

Front 648

sensation seeking

Back 648

The need for varied, novel, and complex sensation and experiences and the willingness to take physical and social risk for the sake of these experiences.

Front 649

sensorimotor stage

Back 649

In Piaget's thoery of cognitive development, the period from birth to about age 2 when infants are not yet capable of representational thought, so they are unable to form mental images or to plan their behavior. Babies have sensory experiences, organize them on the basis of inborn reflexes or patterns of motor responses, and make motor responses to them.

Front 650

sensory integration dysfunction

Back 650

A disorder marked by difficulties such as extreme hypersensitivity or hyposensitivity to sensations such as bright lights, loud sounds, pain, certain textures, or human touch. Usually includes motor clumsiness, balance problems, fidgeting, and poor eye-hand coordination.

Front 651

sensory memory

Back 651

Very brief retention of sensory experiences.

Front 652

separation anxiety

Back 652

Distress of an infant or young child when a primary caregiver leaves the child in someone else's care. Usually begins in the second half of the 1st year, demonstrating the infant's capacity to recall the absent caregiver, and is viewed as a sign of attachment to that caregiver.

Front 653

septum

Back 653

A brain structure located in the forebrain that is part of the limbic system or "emotional brain", which produces feelings such as pleasure, pain, anger, sexuality, fear, and affections.

Front 654

sequential

Back 654

Describes a kind of study that is like a cross-sectional study in that more than one cohort is included, but is like a longitudinal study in that each cohort is measured at more than one age.

Front 655

sex chromosomes

Back 655

The 23rd pair of chromosomes, which are alike in females but mismatched in males, and which determine an individual's sex.

Front 656

sexual dimorphism

Back 656

Both internal and external physical differences between the sexes, which increase during the adolescent growth spurt.

Front 657

sexual orientation

Back 657

A preference for partners of one's own sex (homosexuality), the opposite sex (heterosexuality), or both (bisexuality).

Front 658

shared environment

Back 658

Similar experiences, which are considered to explain similarities between twins that go beyond estimates of genetic influence.

Front 659

shock

Back 659

The first phase in the grieving process when the loss is met by disbelief and the grieving person may experience blunted emotions, or emotional outbursts.

Front 660

sickle-cell anemia

Back 660

A hereditary disease caused by a recessive, defective gene allele affecting the red blood cells. These are abnormally (half-moon) shaped and not as efficient as normal, round red blood cells in carrying oxygen to the tissues. Symptoms can include breathing problems, a variety of organ dysfunctions, and sometimes early death. Most common in individuals of African descent.

Front 661

slow-to-warm-up babies

Back 661

A temperament type described by Thomas and Chess. These babies are like easy babies in most ways, but they are like difficult babies in their fearfulness, showing more wariness in new situations than most other babies.

Front 662

social clock

Back 662

The set of age-related expectations that we all have for the appropriate timing of major life events.

Front 663

social cognition

Back 663

A person's mental processing (thoughts, beliefs, and so on) of information about other people and their reasoning about social relationships.

Front 664

social comparison

Back 664

The process whereby people observe the performance of others and use it as a basis for evaluating their own abilities and accomplishments.

Front 665

social competence vs. performance

Back 665

Social competence is a set of abilities that are important for peer group acceptance; not one set of prescribed behaviors, but rather a range of effective responses, cognitive processses, and abilties to make mature judgments. Performance refers to the child's actual use of skills for getting along with others. Adequate competence (e.g., perspective taking) is necessary but not sufficient for good performance (social functioning).

Front 666

social constructivism

Back 666

A variation of cognitive constructivism which emphasizes that knowledge is constructed within the context of social relationships with others and stresses the influence of such variables as gender, class, and culture on the development of beliefs.

Front 667

social dosage effect

Back 667

The more time children spend in same-gender groups the more gender-typical behaviors they exhibit.

Front 668

social exchange and behavior theories

Back 668

Related to marriage, views that assume satisfaction results from negotiated exchange between partners. Problems arise when costs of relationship exceed benefits.

Front 669

social impact

Back 669

A sociometric measure that is computed by adding the total number of nominations a child receives from her peers, both positive and negative, which indicates the degree to which a child gets noticed within her group.

Front 670

social information-processing

Back 670

Model used to explain idiosyncratic ways or processing social information, such as use of a hostile attributional bias to interpret neutral social cues.

Front 671

social learning theories

Back 671

Theories that focus specifically on how children acquire personality characteristics and social skills.

Front 672

social preference

Back 672

A sociometric measure that is computed by adding the total number of positive nominations a child receives from his peers, which indicates the degree to which a child is positively viewed by his social group.

Front 673

social referencing

Back 673

A baby's adjustment of its reactions to objects or events based on feedback provided by a caregiver. For example, a baby may look at a caregiver's facial expression before approaching a new toy.

Front 674

social role theory

Back 674

The view that the social roles an individual fills, such as parent, spouse, manager, and so on, are important influences on her behavior, and that different individuals will typically behave in similar ways when filling the same role.

Front 675

social skills

Back 675

Discrete, observable behaviors such as making eye contact, using appropriate language, asking appropriate questions, and so forth, which promote effective social interaction and which are part of the broader construct of social competence.

Front 676

socialize

Back 676

To limit some behaviors of the child while demanding others, so that the child will be safe and she will learn the standards of her culture and behave in ways that are conventionally acceptable.

Front 677

sociocultural theories

Back 677

Theories proposing that there are differences in how people develop in different cultures and subcultures. Many of these theories trace their roots to Lev Vygotsky.

Front 678

socioeconomonic status (SES) group

Back 678

A group of people having the same social standing or power, and defined by characteristics of the adults in a household, including educational background, income, and occupational type.

Front 679

sociometry

Back 679

The classic way of assessing social competence and determining the kinds of categories that describe children's status within peer groups. Usually involves asking members of a social group (e.g., children in a classroom) to indicate which members of the group they prefer to spend time with (sit with, play with, etc.) and which they do not.

Front 680

somatic cell therapy

Back 680

An experiemental approach to correcting defective genes that involves insertion of healthy genes into appropriate tissue.

Front 681

specification

Back 681

In Super's theory, the identification of specific vocational preferences during the middle of the exploratory stage.

Front 682

sperm

Back 682

Reproductive cell produced by males, which contains only 23 chromosomes.

Front 683

spermarche

Back 683

A boy's first ejaculation.

Front 684

stability

Back 684

The fourth stage of retirement, when the retiree settles into a lifestyle that is satisfactory to her.

Front 685

stabilization

Back 685

In Super's theory, an individual's settling on a vocational self-concept and job that completes the establishment stage.

Front 686

stage

Back 686

A period of time, perhaps several years, during which a person's activities (at least in one broad domain) have certain characteristics in common.

Front 687

stages of retirement

Back 687

For many people, adjustment to retirement follows a typical stagelike progression, from honeymoon to disenchangment to reorientation to stability to termination.

Front 688

stereotype induction

Back 688

An interview strategy that involves slanting the interviewee's view of an individual, such as implying that an alleged perpetrator is a bad person to encourage children to reveal information.

Front 689

stereotype threat

Back 689

The fear that a stereotype might be true of oneself or that one will be judged by that stereotype.

Front 690

still-face paradigm

Back 690

A research technique for assessing infant coping strategies. The infant is seated facing the mother who is instructed to interact in normally pleasant and playful ways at first and then is asked to change her behavior and to be completely unresponsive or withdrawn.

Front 691

storage

Back 691

The acquisition knowledge or learning; maintaining information in memory.

Front 692

stranger anxiety

Back 692

The tendency of an infant or young child to be wary of strangers and to seek the comfort and protection of the primary caregiver when a stranger is present. May begin early in infancy but is likely to intensify at about 8 months when separation anxiety begins.

Front 693

strange situation test

Back 693

A measurement technique designed by Ainsworth to assess the quality of an infant's attachment to a caregiver. Infants (12 months or older) and their caregivers are brought to a room (the strange situation) where the child experiences a series of eight 3-minute episodes, each one introducing changes in the social situation, some of which are likely to be stressful, such as an episode when the mother leaves the baby with a stranger. The infant's willingness to explore the toys and his reactions to his mother and the strangers are observed.

Front 694

strict dualism

Back 694

Position 1 in Perry's model that implies a rigid adherence to authoritarian views and a childlike division between in-group and out-group. Individuals in this stage never think to question their belief that authority embodies rightness.

Front 695

subjective well-being

Back 695

An individual's experience of overall life satisfaction, including satisfaction with particular domains of life, frequency of positive mood, and relative infrequency of negative mood.

Front 696

substantia nigra

Back 696

One structure in the midbrain. It is involved in vision, hearing, and consciousness.

Front 697

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

Back 697

Sudden death during infancy, usually while sleeping, with no known cause; also known as crib death.

Front 698

superego

Back 698

In Freud's personality theory, the last of three aspects of personality, which serves as an "internalized parent" that causes one to feel guilty if his behavior deviates from parental and societal restrictions.

Front 699

superior colliculi

Back 699

Structures in the midbrain that play a role in vision, hearing, and consciousness.

Front 700

symbolic artifacts

Back 700

Analogical symbols, such as pictures or maps or scale models that are both concrete objects themselves and symbols for other things. To understand a symbolic artifact, a child must mentally represent the same thing in two ways at once.

Front 701

symbols

Back 701

Representational indicators or stand-ins for other things, such as words serving as symbols for concepts or drawings serving as symbols of objects.

Front 702

sympathy

Back 702

An emotion related to empathy that involves "feeling for" another; that is, having concern for the other person, but not necessarily sharing the feelings of the other.

Front 703

synapses

Back 703

Connections among neurons, usually between the dendrite of one neuron and the axon of another neuron, or between the dendrites of one neuron and the cell body of a second neuron. At the synapse there is a gap between neurons which can be bridged by chemicals called neurotransmitters.

Front 704

synaptic gap

Back 704

The space between neurons where they "connect". In transmission of an electrical impulse from one neuron to the next, the gap is bridged by the release of chemicals called neurotransmitters from the first neuron, which then stimulate or inhibit an electrical impulse in the second neuron.

Front 705

synaptic overproduction

Back 705

The generation of more synapses than are needed in the process of brain growth. Those synapses that are not used are later eliminated or "pruned".

Front 706

synaptogenesis

Back 706

The generation of synapses or connections between neurons, usually as a result of the growth of axons and dendrites.

Front 707

synactic system or grammar

Back 707

The aspect of language that specifies how to link words into meaningful sentences. A system of rules for generating and decoding sentences.

Front 708

systems theories

Back 708

Another term for multidimensional models.

Front 709

tangles

Back 709

Twisted filaments of protein, which may interfere with communication between neurons and even cause cell death; they are associated with Alzheimer's disease.

Front 710

temperament

Back 710

Describes the usual emotional and behavioral characteristics of a given individual. For infants, includes activity level, degree of fearfulness and irritability, attention persistence, typical mood, and so on.

Front 711

temporal lobe

Back 711

The part of the cerebrum that is situated on the sides of each hemisphere and is responsible for auditory processing. The left temporal lobe is especially important in language processing.

Front 712

temporizing

Back 712

Perry's description of what individuals are doing when they delay movement to the next stage of thought development.

Front 713

teratogens

Back 713

Substances or agents that can cross the placental barrier and produce fetal deformities when taken or absorbed by the mother during pregnancy.

Front 714

terminal drop (terminal decline)

Back 714

A substantial decline in intellectual functioning that adults may show as they approach the end of their lives, between 6 months and 5 years prior to death.

Front 715

termination

Back 715

The fifth and final stage of retirement, which is the end-of-life transition when the individual's health declines and he becomes dependent on others for care.

Front 716

tertiary prevention

Back 716

An attempt to rehabilitate persons with established disorders; similar to treatment.

Front 717

testes

Back 717

Male gonads that primarily produce androgens (such as testosterone), but also produce lesser amounts of estrogen and progesterone. Site of sperm production in males.

Front 718

testosterone

Back 718

The primary masculinizing hormone or androgen produced by the testes in males and to a lesser extent by the ovaries in females.

Front 719

thalamus

Back 719

A part of the forebrain that relays information from sensory organs and other brain structures to appropriate sites on the cerebral cortex.

Front 720

theory of mind

Back 720

Degree of knowledge of the existence of mental (psychological) processes in self and other people. Includes understanding that people have thoughts, beliefs, intentions, desires, feelings, and so on, that these mental experiences may or may not reflect reality accurately, and that they may be different in other people than they are in the self. Makes possible the capacity to take the perspective of another person.

Front 721

time-out

Back 721

A disciplinary technique in which for a short span of time a child is required to discontinue his involvement in ongoing activities to quietly sit somewhere apart. This technique involves mild power assertion and is suitable for use with toddlers and preschoolers.

Front 722

tomboyism

Back 722

A trait girls exhibit when they prefer to play with boys and prefer boys' toys and activities.

Front 723

tools or signs

Back 723

In Vygotsky's theory, anything that people use to help them think and learn, such as numbering or writing systems.

Front 724

transactional theories

Back 724

Another term for multidimensional models.

Front 725

transcription

Back 725

The complex chain of cellular processes that involves translating the code specified by a gene into the production of a protein. This series of biochemical events ultimately accounts for genetic expression or influence.

Front 726

trinucleotide repeats

Back 726

Repeated sequences of three bases that are part of the code in many normal gene alleles, such as several sequences of CGG (cytonine-guanine-guanine) in a row. The number of trinucleotide repeats sometimes spontaneously increases, constituting one type of gene mutation. Too large a number can cause a gene to function improperly or not at all.

Front 727

trust versus mistrust

Back 727

The crisis faced in the first of Erikson's "Eight Stages of Man", in which the responsiveness of an infant's caregiver will determine whether the baby establishes basic trust and a sense of being valuable.

Front 728

uncharacteristic behavior

Back 728

A condition that mitigates a criminal defendant's guilt because the crime is not typical of her, such as when it is a first offense or is not consistent with the individual's values.

Front 729

unipolar disorder

Back 729

A term used to indicate a clinical course marked by episodes of depression but not of mania.

Front 730

universal prevention

Back 730

A category of prevention efforts that are directed to the general population.

Front 731

unresolved (insecure)

Back 731

An attachment style characterizing adults whose Adult Attachment Inventory transcripts show marked lapses in logical thinking, particularly during discussions of loss or other traumatic memories. These individuals may receive a secondary classification of dismissive or preoccupied, and often have children who show more disorganized attachment patterns than other children.

Front 732

utilization deficiency

Back 732

A situation in which using a memory strategy does not seem to boost memory.

Front 733

verification

Back 733

The third step in the scientific method, when the researcher judges a theory objectively by testing predictions about events and theories to see if they come true.

Front 734

vividness effect

Back 734

Occurs during decision making when some salient or vivid facts attract our attention regardless of their actual value as evidence.

Front 735

vocabulary spurt

Back 735

Describes the rapid growth of productive vocabulary from 50 to about 500 words in just a few months. Tends to occur between 18 and 24 months in most children.

Front 736

vocational self-concept

Back 736

Part of one's total identity that includes ideas about which qualities of the self would or would not provide a match to the requirements of an occupation. Includes person's view of his own characteristics and of his life circumstances, such as the limits or opportunities created by economic conditions and so on.

Front 737

voicing

Back 737

In phonology, vibration of the vocal cords in the production of a sound. Some consonant sounds in English are voiced (e.g., the d and v sounds) and some, which are identical to the voiced consonants in other ways, are not voiced (e.g., t and f).

Front 739

warmth dimension (parental responsiveness)

Back 739

One of two major features of parenting style. The degree to which parents create a positive emotional climate for their children by listening to them, being involved and interested in their activities, accepting them, making positive attributions about their behavior, and being sensitive and supportive.

Front 740

wisdom

Back 740

Expertise in the fundamental pragmatics of life. Superior knowledge and judgment in solving problems or addressing issues that arise in the course of living and that affect the meaning and quality of life.

Front 741

working memory

Back 741

The part of the cognitive machinery that holds information one is actively thinking about at the moment; also referred to as short-term memory.

Front 742

working model

Back 742

In Bowlby's attachment theory, an individual's mental representation of self, other, and relationships, which serves as a prototype of social functioning and affects the individual's expectations and behaviors in future relationships. A cognitive schema that begins in infancy and is refined and elaborated over time; a state of mind about attachment-related issues.

Front 743

X chromosomes

Back 743

The female sex chromosomes, a matched pair of elongated chromosomes that determine that one will be a female.

Front 744

X-linked recessive disorders

Back 744

A class of genetic disorders that are carried on the X chromosome and are recessive, meaning that they are more likely to affect males, who do not have a matching X chromosome that might have the corresponding (and dominant) normal gene. Examples include hemophilia, baldness, color blindness, night blindness, and Duchenne's muscular dystrophy.

Front 745

Y chromosome

Back 745

The male sex chromosome, which pairs with an X chromosome and determines that one will be a male.

Front 746

young adulthood

Back 746

The time period from about 18 to 30 years that is often an extended period of transition involving exploration of potential adult identities.

Front 747

youth

Back 747

A period of time after completing puberty that serves as a transition into adulthood.

Front 748

zone of proximal development

Back 748

In Vygotsky's theory, the range of concepts and skills that a learner is to understand or perfom only with support of scaffolding from someone else.

Front 749

zygote

Back 749

An ovum that has been fertilized by a sperm and thus contains a full complement of 46 chromosomes, half from the mother and half from the father.