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143 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Pulmonary ventilation (aka breathing):
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moving air in and out of the alveoli.
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Ventilation
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is a mechanical process that depends on a difference between the
atmospheric air pressure and the pressure in the alveoli. |
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During inspiration
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he lungs expand, internal volume increase and internal pressure decreases.
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Lung expansion
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occurs through the contraction of the diaphragm and the
intercostal muscles. This decreases the internal pressure of the lungs relative to atmospheric pressure and air inflates the lungs. As the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, the internal pressure increases and air is forced out of the lungs. |
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External respiration:
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gas exchange between the alveoli and the pulmonary
capillaries. Blood enters the lungs through the pulmonary arteries and travels to the arterioles and into the alveolar capillaries. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the air and the blood in the lungs. Blood then flows back to the heart through the alveolar capillaries, venuoles, and pulmonary veins. |
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Respiratory gas transport:
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movement of gases to and from the lungs and tissues
through the bloodstream. |
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Oxygen is carried through the blood in two forms
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It
is either dissolved in the plasma or it attaches to the hemoglobin molecules inside the red blood cells. |
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Internal respiration:
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gas exchange between the capillaries and the tissues.
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The organs of the respiratory system
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include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and their smaller branches, and the lungs, which contain the alveoli.
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The nose
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is the only externally visible part of the respiratory system. During breathing, air enters the nose by passing through the nostrils, or nares.
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The interior of the nose consists of...
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the nasal cavity, divided by a midline nasal septum.
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The mucosa lining the nasal cavity
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called respiratory mucosa, rest on a rich network of thin-walled veins that warms the air as it flows past. In addition, the sticky mucus produced by this mucosa's glands moistens the air and traps incoming bacteria and other foreign debris, and lysozyme enzymes in the mucus chemically destroy bacteria.
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The lateral walls of the nasal cavity
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are uneven owing to three mucosa-covered projections, or lobes, called conchae, which greatly increase the surface area of the mucosa exposed to the air.
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The conchae
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also increase the air turbulence in the nasal cavity.
As the air swirls through the twists and turns, inhaled particles are deflected onto the mucus-coated surfaces, where they are trapped and prevented from reaching the lungs. |
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The nasal cavity is separated from the oral cavity below by...
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a partition, the palate.
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Anteriorly, where the palate is supported by bone, is ________.
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the hard palate.
the unsupported posterior part is the soft palate. |
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The nasal cavity is surrounded by a ring of
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paranasal sinuses
located in the frontal, sphenoidal, ethmoid, and maxillary bones. The sinuses lighten the bones and act as resonance chambers for speech. They also produce mucus, which drains into the nasal cavities. |
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The pharynx
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is a muscular passageway. Commonly called the throat, the pharynx serves as a common passageway for food and air.
It is continuous with the nasal cavity anteriorly via the posterior nasal aperture. Air enters the superior portion, the nasopharynx, from the nasal cavity and then descends through the oropharynx and laryngopharynx to enter the larynx below. |
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Food enters the mouth and then travels along with air through the...
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oropharynx and laryngopharynx.
Instead of entering the larynx, food is directed into the esophagus posteriorly. |
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Clusters of lymphatic tissue called...
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tonsils are also found in the pharynx.
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The pharyngeal tonsil
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or adenoid, is located high in the nasopharynx.
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The palatine tonsils are
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in the oropharynx at the end of the soft palate, as are the lingual tonsils, which lie at the base of the tongue.
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The larynx
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or voice box, routes air and food into the proper channels and plays a role in speech. Located inferior to the pharynx, it is formed by eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage, the epiglottis.
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The largest of the hyaline cartilages is
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the shield-shaped thyroid cartilage, commonly called the Adam's apple.
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The epiglottis
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protects the superior opening of the larynx.
When not swallowing, the epiglottis does not restrict the passage of air into the lower respiratory passages. When swallowing food or fluids, the larynx is pulled upward and the epiglottis tips, forming a lid over the opening of the larynx and routes the food into the esophagus. If anything other than air enters the larynx, a cough reflex is triggered to expel the substance and prevent it from continuing into the lungs. Part of the mucous membrane of the larynx forms a pair of folds, called the vocal folds, or true vocal cords, which vibrate with expelled air. This ability of the vocal folds to vibrate allows a person to speak. |
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The trachea
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is fairly rigid because its walls are reinforced with C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage.
Air enters the trachea from the larynx. |
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hyaline cartilage
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These rings serve a double purpose. The open parts of the rings are against the esophagus and allow it to expand when swallowing a large piece of food.
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The trachea is lined with a ciliated mucosa...
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The cilia beat continuously and in a direction opposite to that of the incoming air. They propel mucus, loaded with dust particles and other debris, away from the lungs to the throat, where it can be swallowed.
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The right and left main (primary) bronchi
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are formed by the division of the trachea.
Each main bronchus runs obliquely before it plunges into the medial depression of the lung on its side. The right main bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter than the left. By the time air reaches the bronchi, it is warm, cleansed of most impurities, and well humidified. The smaller subdivisions of the main bronchi within the lungs are direct routes to the air sacs. |
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The lungs
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occupy the entire thoracic cavity except for the most central area
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the mediastinum
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houses the heart.
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The narrow superior portion of each lung...
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the apex, is just deep to the clavicle.
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The broad lung area resting on the diaphragm is...
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the base.
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Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures...
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the left lung has two lobes, and the right lung has three
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The surface of each lung is covered with a visceral serosa called...
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the pulmonary, or visceral, pleura, and the walls of the thoracic cavity are lined by the parietal pleura.
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The pleural membranes produce...
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pleural fluid, a slippery serous secretion which allows the lungs to glide easily over the thorax wall during breathing movements and causes the two pleural layers to cling together.
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the pleural space
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is more of a potential space than an actual one. This condition of tightly adhering pleural membranes is absolutely essential for normal breathing.
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After entering the lungs, the main bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller branches, finally ending in the smallest of the conducting passageways...
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the bronchioles
All but the smallest branches have reinforcing cartilage in their walls. |
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The terminal bronchioles lead into even smaller conduits that eventually terminate in...
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alveoli, or air sacs.
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The respiratory zone, which includes the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli, is...
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the only site of gas exchange.
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the lungs are mostly air spaces. The lung tissue is...
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mainly elastic connective tissue that allows the lungs to recoil passively during an exhale.
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The walls of the alveoli are composed largely of...
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a single, thin layer of squamous epithelial cells.
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Together the alveolar and capillary walls and their fused basement membranes construct the...
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respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier), which has gas (air) flowing past on one side and blood flowing past on the other side.
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The final line of defense for the respiratory system is
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in the alveoli.
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Alveolar macrophages
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travel in and out of the alveoli picking up bacteria, carbon particles, and other debris.
Also found in the epithelial cells that form most of the alveolar walls are chunky cuboidal cells, which look very different from the squamous epithelial cells. These cells produce a lipid molecule called surfactant, which coats the gas exposed alveolar surfaces and which is very important in lung function. |
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What is the larynx cartilage that is also known as the Adam's Apple?
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the thyroid cartilage
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Cricoid cartilage
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Which of the cartilages of the larynx is attached to the first ring of cartilage of the trachea by the cricotracheal ligament?
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What are the superior pair of mucous membrane folds of the larynx called?
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ventricular folds or false vocal cords
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What are the inferior pair of mucous membrane folds of the larynx called?
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vocal folds or true vocal cords
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What is the glottis?
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Consists of a pair of folds of mucous membrane, the vocal folds (true vocal cords) in the larynx, and the rima glottis.
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What branches from the primary bronchi?
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the secondary/lobar bronchi
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What branches from the primary bronchi?
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the secondary/lobar bronchi
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What are the smaller bronchi that branch from the secondary bronchi?
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tertiary/segmental bronchi
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Respiratory tree
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also known as the tracheobronchial tree, branches at the bottom of the trachea, at a forked membrane called the carina. Here, two bronchus tubes lead into each lung, where more branching ensues into the lobar bronchus and smaller segmental bronchus that resemble the limbs of a tree. Smaller sticks on those branches could then be considered terminal bronchiole, where alveolar ducts and attached sacs make up what would amount to the flowers and seeds of a real tree.
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Alveolar ducts
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Respiratory bronchioles feed into alveolar ducts, which are formed by a series of alveoli lying adjacent to one another. These ducts eventually terminate in groups or clusters of alveoli called alveolar sacs
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Respiratory membrane
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consists of alveolar squamous cell, the fused basement membrane and the capillary endothelial cell. The fused basement membrane is located between the previous two cells. The respiratory membrane is thin to allow quick exchange of gases.
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Respiratory zone structures
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Consists of tubes and tissues within the lungs where gas exchange occurs.
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Conducting zone structures
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Consists of a series of interconnecting cavities and tubes both outside and within the lungs.
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Pleura
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The main function of this smooth membrane is to allow the lungs to move easily in the pleural cavity, which is the space between the parietal and visceral pleura.
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Parietal pleura
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he outer parietal pleura attaches to the chest wall
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Visceral pleura
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the inner visceral pleura cover the lungs directly, extending deep down into the fissures.
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Pulmonary ventilation
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requires air to move into and out of the lungs so that the gases in the air sacs (alveoli) of the lungs are continuously refreshed. This process of pulmonary ventilation is commonly called breathing.
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External respiration
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occurs when there is gas exchange (oxygen loading and carbon dioxide unloading) between the pulmonary blood and alveoli. In external respiration, gas exchanges are being made between the blood and the body exterior.
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Respiratory gas transport
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requires oxygen and carbon dioxide to be transported to and from the lungs and tissue cells of the body via the bloodstream.
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Internal respiration
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occurs at systemic capillaries when gas exchanges are made between the blood and tissue cells. In internal respiration, gas exchanges are occurring between the blood and cells inside the body.
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Inspiration
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hen the inspiratory muscles, the diaphragm and external intercostals, contract, the size of the thoracic cavity increases. As the dome-shaped diaphragm contracts, it moves inferiorly and flattens out. As a result, the superior-inferior dimension (height) of the thoracic cavity increases. Contraction of the external intercostals lifts the rib cage and thrusts the sternum forward, which increases the dimensions of the thorax.
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As intrapulmonary volume increases...
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the gases within the lungs spread out to fill the larger space. The resulting decrease in the gas pressure in the lungs produces a partial vacuum, which sucks air into the lungs. Air continues to move into the lungs until the intrapulmonary pressure equals atmospheric pressure. This series of events is called inspiration (inhalation).
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Expiration
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Expiration (exhalation) is largely a passive process that depends more on the natural elasticity of the lungs than on muscle contraction. As the intercostal muscles and diaphragm relax and resume their initial resting position, the rib cage descends and the lungs recoil. Thus, both the thoracic and intrapulmonary volumes decrease. As the intrapulmonary volume decreases, the gases inside the lungs are forced more closely together, and the intrapulmonary pressure rises to a point higher than atmospheric pressure. This causes the gases to flow out to equalize the pressure inside and outside the lungs.
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This respiratory volume is referred to as...
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the tidal volume (TV)
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The amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the tidal volume is...
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the inspiratory reserve volume (IRV).
the inspiratory reserve volume is around 3100 ml |
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The expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
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the amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a tidal expiration is approximately 1200 ml.
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Even after the most strenuous expiration...
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about 1200 ml of air still remains in the lungs, and it cannot be voluntarily expelled. This is called the residual volume.
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Residual volume air is important because...
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it allows gas exchange to go on continuously even between breaths and helps to keep the alveoli open (inflated).
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The total amount of exchangeable air (around 4800 ml for the average man and 3100 for the average woman) is
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he vital capacity (VC).
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Much of the air that enters the respiratory tract remains in the conducting zone passageways and never reaches the alveoli. This is...
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the dead space volume
during a normal tidal breath, it amounts to about 150 ml. The functional volume, air that actually reaches the respiratory zone and contributes to gas exchange, is about 350 ml. |
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Nonrespiratory air movements are...
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situations other than breathing that move air into or out of the lungs and may modify the normal respiratory rhythm.
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The activity of the respiratory muscles, the diaphragm, and external intercostals is regulated by nerve impulses transmitted from the brain by the...
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phrenic and intercostal nerves
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Nonneural factors that influence respiratory rate and depth include...
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physical factors, volition, emotional factors, and chemical factors.
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Physical factors include...
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talking, coughing, and exercising.
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Volition
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is consciously controlling the breathing pattern. Voluntary control of breathing is limited, and the respiratory centers will force a breath when the oxygen supply in the blood is getting low or blood pH is falling.
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Emotional factors
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can also modify the rate and depth of breathing by the hypothalamus initiating reflexes.
Examples include an individual holding his or her breath while anxious, or breathing fast when scared. Chemical factors, or the levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood, are the most important nonneural factors. Increased levels of carbon dioxide and decreased blood pH lead to an increase in the rate and depth of breathing. Increased carbon dioxide in the blood is the most important chemical stimulus for breathing in a healthy person. |
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Spirometer
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is an apparatus for measuring the volume of air inspired and expired by the lungs. A spirometer measures ventilation, the movement of air into and out of the lungs.
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Tracheal obstruction
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or suffocation, is a life threatening condition where air cannot enter the lungs.
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The Heimlich maneuver
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is a procedure in which the air in a person's lungs is used to expel the obstruction, which is usually food.
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Pleurisy
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is inflammation of the pleura and can be caused by decreased secretion of pleural fluid. The pleural surfaces become dry and rough, resulting in friction and stabbing pain with each breath.
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atelectasis
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or lung collapse, the lung is useless for ventilation. This can be caused by air entering the pleural space through a chest wound, or from a rupture of the visceral pleura, which allows air to enter the pleural space from the respiratory tract.
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The presence of air in the intrapleural space, which disrupts the fluid bond between the pleurae, is referred to as...
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pneumothorax
Pneumothorax is reversed by drawing air out of the intrapleural space with chest tubes, which allow the lung to reinflate and resume its normal function. |
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Hypoxia
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is inadequate oxygen delivery to body tissues. This condition causes the skin and mucosae to look bluish, or cyanotic. Hypoxia may be the result of anemia, pulmonary disease, or impaired or blocked blood circulation.
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Carbon monoxide poisoning is a unique type of hypoxia. Carbon monoxide is...
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an odorless, colorless gas that competes with oxygen for the same binding sites on hemoglobin.
Carbon monoxide can crowd out or displace oxygen. Carbon monoxide poisoning is the leading cause of death from fire. Treatment includes 100% oxygen until all carbon monoxide is cleared from the body. |
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Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)...
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includes chronic bronchitis and emphysema and is a major cause of death and disability in the United States.
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chronic bronchitis
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the mucosa of the lower respiratory passages becomes severely inflamed and produces excessive amounts of mucus. The pooled mucus impairs ventilation and gas exchange and dramatically increases the risk of lung infections, including pneumonias.
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emphysema
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the alveoli enlarge as the walls of adjacent chambers break through. Chronic inflammation promotes fibrosis of the lungs. As the lungs become less elastic, the airways collapse during expiration and obstruct outflow of air. As a result, these patients use an incredible amount of energy to exhale, and they are always exhausted.
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Lung cancer
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is the leading cause of cancer death for both men and women in North America. Nearly 90% of lung cancers are the result of smoking. Lung cancer is aggressive and metastasizes rapidly and widely.
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squamous cell carcinoma
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arises in the epithelium of the larger bronchi and tends to form masses that hollow out and bleed
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adenocarcinoma
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originates as solitary nodules that develop from bronchial glands and alveolar cells
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small cell carcinoma
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contains lymphocyte-like cells that originate in the main bronchi and grow aggressively in small clusters within the mediastinum.
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infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS)
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Infants who are born prematurely, without surfactant production have dyspnea within a few hours after birth and use tremendous amounts of energy to keep reinflating their alveoli because the alveoli collapse after each breath. Equipment that supplies a continuous positive pressure and keeps the alveoli open and working in gas exchange can be used until the maturing lungs can supply adequate amounts of surfactant.
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Cystic fibrosis (CF)
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is a birth defect of the respiratory system. CF causes over secretion of thick mucus that clogs the respiratory passages and puts the child at risk for fatal respiratory infections. CF affects other secretory processes, including food digestion, because it clogs ducts that deliver pancreatic enzymes and bile to the small intestine. Conventional therapy for CF includes administering mucus-dissolving drugs, pounding on the chest to loosen the thick mucus, and taking antibiotics to prevent infection.
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Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
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claims many newborn infants. Apparently healthy infants stop breathing and die in their sleep. SIDS is believed to be a problem of neural control of respiration.
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What structures make up the respiratory system?
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Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
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Structurally, how is the respiratory system classified?
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1-the upper respiratory system, which includes the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, and associated structures.
2-the lower respiratory system, which consists of the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and the lungs. |
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Functionally, how is the respiratory system classified?
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1-the conducting zone
2-the respiratory zone |
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What structures are associated with the conducting zone and what is their purpose?
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Nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles.Their function is to filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it to the lungs.
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What structures are associated with the respiratory zone and what is their purpose?
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Includes the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveolar. These structures are the main site of gas exchange between air and blood.
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The frontal bone, nasal bones, and maxillae form the bony framework of the ___________.
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external nose
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The cartilaginous framework of the external nose consists of the ___________, the _________, and __________.
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septal nasal cartilage, lateral nasal cartilage, and alar cartilage.
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What are the two openings on the under surface of the of the external nose called?
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external nares or nostrils
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What are the three functions of the internal structures of the external nose?
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1-warming, moistening, and filtering incoming air
2-detecting olfactory stimuli 3-modifying speech vibrations |
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What is the nasal cavity lined with?
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muscle and mucous membrane
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What are the two openings that are located in the posterior portion of the nasal cavity in which it communicates with the pharynx?
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the internal nares or choanae
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What are the two regions called in which the nasal cavity is divided?
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1-respiratory region
2-olfactory region |
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Three shelves formed by projections of the superior, middle, and inferior are called _______.
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nasal conchae
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What are the three anatomical regions of the pharynx?
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1-nasopharynx
2-oropharynx 3-laryngopharynx or hypopharynx |
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What is the opening in the oropharynx called?
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fauces
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What is the structure that connects the laryngopharynx with the trachea?
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the larynx
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How many pieces of cartilage are in the wall of the larynx?
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9
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What are the 3 pieces of cartilage of the larynx that occur singly?
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thyroid, epiglottis, and cricoid
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What are the cartilages in the larynx that are found in pairs?
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arytenoid, cuneiform, and corniculate
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Of the paired cartilages in the larynx, which is the most important and why?
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The arytenoid cartilages, because they influence changes in position and tension of the vocal folds.
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What is the epiglottis?
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the large leaf shaped piece of elastic cartilage that is covered by epithelium.
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What is the glottis?
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Consists of a pair of folds of mucous membrane, the vocal folds (true vocal cords) in the larynx, and the rima glottis.
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Which of the cartilages of the larynx is attached to the first ring of cartilage of the trachea by the cricotracheal ligament?
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cricoid cartilage
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What is the landmark site for making an emergency airway/tracheotomy?
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cricoid cartilage
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What is the space between the ventricular folds called?
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rima vestibuli
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What are the three layers of the trachea wall?
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1-mucousa
2-submucosa 3-hyaline cartilage 4-adventita (composed of areolar connective tissue) |
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Where does the trachea divide into right and left primary bronchi?
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At the superior border of the fifth thoracic vertebra, the T5.
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What shape are the cartilage that provide semirigid support to maintain patency so that the trachea wall does not collapse inward?
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they are solid C-shaped rings.
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Which of the primary bronchus is wider, shorter, and more vertical?
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the right primary bronchus.
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What is the internal ridge which is found at the point in which the trachea divides?
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the carina
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What many lobes does the right and left lung have?
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right-3 lobes
left-2 lobes |
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What branches from the tertiary/segmental bronchi?
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bronchioles
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If someone has pleural effusion, what is wrong with them?
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they have excess fluid that has accumulated in the pleural space, due to inflammation.
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What is the hilum/hilus?
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Found on the mediastinal surface of each lung, through which bronchi, pulmonary blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves enter and exit.
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How much smaller is the left lung, as a result of the cardiac notch?
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about 10 percent smaller
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What is the segment of lung tissue that each tertiary bronchus supplies called?
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bronchopulmonary segment
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What is the specific structure that participates in gas exchange?
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alveoli
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What is the cell type found in alveoli that are the main site of gas exchange?
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type I alveolar cells
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What alveolar cell type contains microvilli, are fewer in numbers, secretes alveolar fluid, and keeps the surface between the cells and air moist?
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type II alveolar cells/septal cells
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What are the small compartments found in each bronchopulmonary segment called?
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lubules
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What is the name of the fissure that can be found on both lungs, dividing them into lobes?
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Oblique fissure
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What is the name of the fissure that can only be found on the right lung?
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the horizontal fissure
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What are the 4 parts of the respiratory membrane?
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1-alveolar wall
2-epithelial basement membrane 3-capillary basement membrane 4-capillary endothelium |
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What are the three basic steps of respiration?
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1-pulmonary ventilation/breathing
2-external/pulmonary respiration 3-internal/tissue respiration |
