Lectures 1-3

Front 1

in the mid-to-late 1800s, Charles Darwin and Alfred wallace independently developed the theory of ______________________________

Back 1

evolution by natural selection

Front 2

four main observations of the theory of revolution

Back 2

1. reproduction increased a population unless a factor limits it

2. individuals of a given species are not identical

3. some of the differences b.w individuals are inherited

4. not all individuals survive to reproduce

Front 3

traits that increase the probability of survival, or ________________, will eventurally predominate in the population as a result of this inference, and through further work, Darwin determined that

Back 3

adaptations

Front 4

members of the opposite sex exert pressures on the other based on anatomical and behavioral features that favor reproductive success, a process termed ________________

Back 4

sexual selection

Front 5

the theory of evolution boils down to

Back 5

those who produce offspring will pass down their genetic material to the next generation. The probability of producing offspring is based on how well-adapted an individual is to the environment

Front 6

evolution is

Back 6

simply the process by which organisms change due to sexual or environmental pressure

Front 7

_____________ describes how similar environments can bring about similarities in animals that are distantly related

Back 7

convergent evolution

Front 8

____________ is the behavioral/structural resemblance between animals that are not closely related

Back 8

homoplasy

Front 9

__________ is the resemblance between animals that have a common ancestor

Back 9

analogy

Front 10

__________ refers to similarities in function of anatomical parts even if they look different

Back 10

homology

Front 11

a new trait occurred in the population not because of the observations Darwin had above but because of _______________, or changes, to genetic material

Back 11

mutations

Front 12

__________ are the basis of inheritance and contain all of the information, i.e. DNA, to produce everything from plants to humans

Back 12

genes

Front 13

the genes are wrapped up in the cell nucleus in large structures called ________________

Back 13

chromosomes

Front 14

carolus linnaeus set up the foundation for the _____________________, which graphs animals based on their genus and species

Back 14

phylogenetic tree

Front 15

why should we study other species?

Back 15

1. understanding the world we live in

2. translation to understanding human biology and treating disease

Front 16

vertebrates share many neural similarities

Back 16

1. development from a neural tube

2. bilateral symmetry of the brain

3. segmentation of the spinal cord

4. hierarchical control by the brain

5. separate nervous systems

6. localization of function within the nervous system

Front 17

cerebral volume increased significantly with the arrival of homo sapiens, despite increased brain volume being fairly taxing metabolically. why?

Back 17

1. large brains are better adapted to environmental pressures

2. sexual selection likely favors larger brains

Front 18

_________________ thought the heart was the seat of mental capacities

Back 18

aristotle

Front 19

in the mid-1600s Rene Descartes wrote a book trying to explain the behavior of animals and humans. Descartes believed there was both a material body and non-material soul, termed _______________

Back 19

dualism

Front 20

____________ stated that the shape of the skull is what determined behavior. which is of course not true

Back 20

phrenology

Front 21

an Italian pathologist that formulated _____________, using silver salts to stain whole neurons in the brain

Back 21

golgi method

Front 22

golgi helped support the _______________ which stated that the brain was made up of a continuous network of neurons

Back 22

reticular theory

Front 23

a Spanish neuroanatomist that improved upon the Golgi method and was able to show that neurons were individual cells that communicated with each other instead of a continuous network. This was known as the _______________ and it accurately described how the nervous system functioned

Back 23

neuron doctrine

Front 24

a British physiologist was another proponent of the neuron doctrine and was the first to call the point of contact between two neurons a _______________

Back 24

synapse

Front 25

the goal of __________________ is to understand the biology underlying behavior and experience

Back 25

behavioral neuroscience

Front 26

______________ describes the process by which an individual changes in the course of its lifetime

Back 26

ontogeny

Front 27

________________ make changes to the structure or function of the brain and see how this alteration changes behavior

Back 27

somatic intervention

Front 28

_______________ see how changes in behavior alter structure or function of the brain

Back 28

behavioral intervention

Front 29

_______________ factor that is manipulated by the experimenter

Back 29

independent variable

Front 30

______________ factor that changes in response to manipulation

Back 30

dependent variable

Front 31

_______________ the extent to which a given body measure varies with a given behavioral measure

Back 31

correlation

Front 32

the scientific strategy of breaking a system down into increasingly smaller parts in order to understand is termed _______________

Back 32

reductionism

Front 33

contains the nucleus and much of the machinery that maintains cellular function

Back 33

cell body

Front 34

extensions of the neuron that receive chemical information from other neurons

Back 34

dendrites

Front 35

describes the number of inputs onto adendrite

Back 35

convergence

Front 36

is an extension of a neuron that sends information to other neurons/cells. Each neuron only has one

Back 36

axon

Front 37

is site of action potential generation,located at the start of the axon. This is the integration zone

Back 37

axon hillock

Front 38

have many dendrites and a single axon. These types of neurons are the most common in the nervous system. The cell body and dendrites are part of the input zone,while the axon terminal is the output zone.

Back 38

multipolar neurons

Front 39

have a single dendrite and a single axon, on opposite ends. These neurons are common in sensory systems. The cell body and dendrites are part of the input zone,while the axon terminal is the output zone.

Back 39

bipolar neurons

Front 40

have a single extension (axon) that merges from the cell body and goes in 2 opposite directions. These neurons are common in sensory systems. The “dendritic” branches are the input zone and the axon terminals the output zone.

Back 40

unipolar neurons

Front 41

A neuron that transmits motor messages that stimulate a muscle or gland and are multipolar shaped cells with long axons

Back 41

motor neuron

Front 42

A neuron that transmits environmental changes (touch, pain, temperature, etc.) to the spinal cord and brain. They tend to be unipolar or bipolar and can have longer axons

Back 42

sensory neurons

Front 43

these neurons tend to be in the nervous system They take information from other neurons, process it and transmit that information to other cells. They tend to have short axons and are multipolar

Back 43

interneurons

Front 44

This is the term for the point of contact between a terminal bouton and the dendrite it is communicating with. This region is where neural communication/signaling occurs between neurons

Back 44

synapses

Front 45

axon terminal of the presynaptic neurons. The one sending information

Back 45

presynaptic membrane

Front 46

where the presynaptic neuron is sending information to; this can be either a dendrite or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron

Back 46

postsynaptic membrane

Front 47

is the term for the narrow space inside the synapse where neurotransmitters are released and is the space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes.

Back 47

synaptic cleft

Front 48

____________ are neurotransmitter-filled sacs that are present in axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron. The vesicles fuse with the axon terminal membrane and release their contents into the synapse,where the neurotransmitters can then bind to ___________ on a postsynaptic membrane

Back 48

synaptic vesicles

receptors

Front 49

The process of signaling between neurons is called

Back 49

synaptic transmission

Front 50

is passed down an axon, which causes the presynaptic terminal to release a neurotransmitter

Back 50

action potential

Front 51

These star shaped cells help keep theblood brain barrier in tact by providing a chemical cue to maintain the bloodbrain barrier. They also regulate blood flow increases following neural activity

Back 51

astrocytes

Front 52

These small cells are the main form of immune defense in the CNS. They monitor for infectious agents and damage and use phagocytosis to remove the destructive agent.

Back 52

microglia

Front 53

Both cell types produce a fatty covering,called myelin,for nerve cell axons that insulates them and speeds up neuronal signaling

Back 53

1. oligodendrocytes - in CNS

2. Shwann cells - in PNS

Front 54

line the walls of the ventricles and participate in cerebrospinal fluid secretion

Back 54

ependymal cells

Front 55

The fluid present within the entirety of the neuron

Back 55

cytoplasm

Front 56

“powerhouse of the cell.” Responsible for breaking down nutrients, such as glucose, to provide the cell with energy (ATP)

Back 56

mitochondria

Front 57

long,thin protein fibers located throughout the neuron that help give the neuron structure

Back 57

neurofilament

Front 58

thick, very long protein fibers that act as conveyer belts for transporting proteins to where they need to go within the cell

Back 58

microtubules

Front 59

located in the cell body and contains the DNA of the neurons

Back 59

nucleus

Front 60

comprises both the coding DNA sequences (axons) that get transcribed into mRNA and eventually into protein

Back 60

gene

Front 61

The ASPM gene is involved in cell division/neurogenesis in the embryonic brain. Mutation of the current gene leads to ____________ which is a dramatic reduction in brain size

Back 61

microcephaly

Front 62

Adjacent to the nucleus, within the overall nuclear membrane

Back 62

endoplasmic reticulum

Front 63

______________ –called rough because it is studded with proteins called ___________ .These rough proteins read RNA and make the proteins the cell needs.

Back 63

1. rough endoplasmic reticulum

2. ribosomes

Front 64

Once proteins are made by rough ER, _______________ packages them into vesicles. The vesicles protect the proteins inside from being damaged as it travels down the axon

Back 64

the golgi apparatus

Front 65

surrounded the cytoplasm and is what contains all of the components we discussed in a structure

Back 65

plasma membrane

Front 66

There are two layers of lipids (i.e. fat molecules) that make up the plasma membrane, and these layers are called the

Back 66

lipid bilayer

Front 67

carries messages to and from the CNS and compromises of axons that are bundled into nerves. Consists of the somatic and autonomic nervous system

Back 67

peripherhal nervous system

Front 68

controls voluntary muscles and transmits sensory information to the CNS

Back 68

somatic nervous system

Front 69

communicates with internal organs and glands and is largely not under our conscious control

Back 69

autonomic nervous system

Front 70

You have 31 pairs of spinal nerves,broken in to 4 distinct segments

Back 70

1. cervical (neck)

2. thoracic (trunk)

3. lumbar (lower back)

4. sacral (pelvic) and coccygeal (bottom)

Front 71

From each spinal cord section, you will have two types of nerve bundles going into or out of the spinal cord

Back 71

1. dorsal root: sensory information coming in to the spinal cord on the dorsal side

2. ventral root: motor information leaving the spinal cord on the ventral side

Front 72

in the sympathetic nervous system (flight or fight), the preganglionic fiber releases a neurotransmitter called ___________, while the postganglionic releases a neurotransmitter called ______________

Back 72

1. acetylcholine

2. norepinephrine

Front 73

in the parasympathetic nervous system (rest and digest), the preganglionic and postganglionic fibers release ______________

Back 73

acetylcholine

Front 74

in the CNS bundles of axons are called _______

Back 74

tracts

Front 75

The myelin covering the axons tend to be white in appearance and the cell bodies grey, thus regions with cell bodies are called _________ and regions with axons __________

Back 75

1. grey matter

2. white matter

Front 76

The four major divisions of the CNS are

Back 76

1. forebrain

2. midbrain

3. hindbrain

4. spinal cord

Front 77

cortical bulges are

Back 77

gyri (gyrus = 1)

Front 78

grooves in between the gyri

Back 78

sulci (sulcus = 1)

Front 79

connection between the two hemispheres.This area contains a band of nerve fibers that send information to/from each hemisphere

Back 79

corpus callosum

Front 80

refers to how some cognitive processes tend to be specialized within a hemisphere

Back 80

lateralization of function

Front 81

this test is an injection of drug into right or left carotid artery, which shuts down function of one hemisphere. Then, you can test for language or memory to see if it is intact. Done before brain surgery to help localize areas that need to be avoided

Back 81

wada test

Front 82

some people are born without a corpus callosum or have to have the corpus callosum surgically severed due to severe seizures, these patients are called

Back 82

split-brain patients

Front 83

this lobe is for planning and directing future actions, and controlling movements

Back 83

frontal lobe

Front 84

_______________ controls skeletal muscle for all voluntary movements and for automatic programmed movements such as walking, chewing and talking

Back 84

primary motor cortex

Front 85

the primary motor cortex is located within the

Back 85

precentral gyrus

Front 86

there is a deep sulci, called the ____________ that divides precentral gyrus/primary motor cortex from the primary somatosensory cortex

Back 86

central sulcus

Front 87

this lobe is for somatic sensation and perception of the body

Back 87

parietal lobe

Front 88

the sensation from anything that touches your body surface goes to this cortex

Back 88

primary somatosensory cortex

Front 89

the primary somatosensory cortex is located in the ____________

Back 89

post central gyrus

Front 90

__________ is for hearing and aspects of learning, memory and emotion. Separated by other regions in your cortex by the ____________

Back 90

temporal lobe

sylvian fissure

Front 91

each lobe contains its own ______________ which is responsible for integrating actions of primary sensory and motor cortex

Back 91

association cortex

Front 92

______________ receives visceral information and controsl visceral and endocrine functions (hormonal control)

Back 92

hypothalamus

Front 93

____________ receives and integrates somatic (body—skin and muscles) information

Back 93

thalamus

Front 94

A group of interconnected structures responsible for emotions, memory and motivated behaviors

Back 94

limbic system

Front 95

a group of structures important for motor control

Back 95

basal ganglia

Front 96

Superior colliculi has what kind of reflexes?

Back 96

visual motor

Front 97

Inferior colliculi has what kind of reflexes?

Back 97

auditory motor

Front 98

plays a role in sleep, arousal, and attention.

Back 98

tegmentum

Front 99

is located above the spinal cord and is responsible for motor commands from the cortex and bringing in sensory information

Back 99

hindbrain

Front 100

_____________ controls and coordinates voluntary movement

Back 100

the cerebellum

Front 101

the cerebellum has 3 layers

Back 101

1. purkinje cell layer

2. granule cell layer

3. molecular layer

Front 102

_______ is crucial for basic life functions such as breathing, heart beating, digestive reflexes etc. Part of the ____________________ with the mid brain

Back 102

medulla oblongata

reticular formation

Front 103

what region in the spinal cord sends information to/from neck and arms

Back 103

cervical region

Front 104

what region in the spinal cord sends information to/from back and chest

Back 104

thoracic region

Front 105

what region in the spinal cord sends information to/from legs

Back 105

lumbar region

Front 106

what region in the spinal cord sends information to/from pelvis and viscera

Back 106

sacral region

Front 107

___________ is another major "defense" your brain and spinal cord have against damage

Back 107

meninges

Front 108

the meninges have three layers

Back 108

1. dura mater

2. arachnoid layer

3 pia mater

Front 109

this is a tough layer in the meninges that lines the skull

Back 109

dura mater

Front 110

___________ is a web-like layer below the dura mater. beneath this layer is a fluid-filled space called ______________ that contains large blood vessels

Back 110

arachnoid layer

subarachnoid space

Front 111

the _______________ is a clear fluid that provides cushioning support for the brain, as well as basic immunological support

Back 111

cerebrospinal fluid

Front 112

there are 4 interconnected ventricles in the brain

Back 112

1. lateral ventricles - one in each hemisphere

2. third ventricle

3. fourth ventricle

Front 113

the flow of CSF is from __________________, after exiting the final ventricle, the CSF goes into the _____________ of the spinal cord after which it will be reabsorbed in the venous system

Back 113

lateral ventricles > third > fourth ventricles

central canal

Front 114

the _____________ connects the third and fourth ventricles and CSF must pass through this region to get to the fourth ventricle

Back 114

cerebral aqueduct

Front 115

modified ependymal cells together with specialized capillaries form the _____________ which is where CSF is made

Back 115

choroid plexus

Front 116

the blood brain barrier is what protects your brain from much of what is present in the ____________. It is formed by ____________ between the individual vascular cells

Back 116

bloodstream

blood vessels that have tight junctions

Front 117

the term for leakiness of normal capillaries is _________________ meaning they have openings to allow in various substances

Back 117

fenestrated

Front 118

in the blood brain barrier within the brain, the blood vessels are ____________, meaning there are barriers preventing substances from entering

Back 118

non-fenestrated

Front 119

the _________________ are exceptions in the brain because they do not contain the BBB

Back 119

circumventricular organs (CVOs)

Front 120

the ________________, within the CVOs, does not contain a BBB because it detects noxious substances your blood stream and respond, such as vomitting

Back 120

area postrema