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155 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What are the functions of blood?
Homeostasis by transport of:
- respiratory gases
- nutrients
- wastes
- hormones
- function of ions
- temperature balance
What are the main nutrients carried by the blood?
- carbohydrates
- lipids
- protein
- nucleic acids
- other nutrients absorbed as is... water and electrolytes
In what form do carbohydrates enter the blood?
Simple sugars. Monosaccharide
In what form do proteins enter the blood?
Must be broken down to a single amino acid.
In what form do lipids enter the blood?
Must be a glycerol or a fatty acid (one of the three fatty acid).
In what form do nucleic acids enter the blood?
A nucleotide.
What 2 gases are transported in the blood?
Oxygen and carbon dioxide.
What is the average temperature for blood?
100.4 F (38 C)
What is the body’s thermostat called?
Hypothalamus
What is the body’s reaction when it is too hot?
VD (vasodialate superficial vessel)
VC (vasoconstrict core vessels)

-evaporation (perspiration)
-radiation (hot go to cooler surroundings).
What is the body’s reaction when it is too cold?
VC (vasoconstrict superficial vessels). VD (vasodilate core vessels)
-shiver.
Define acidosis.
Condition of excessive acid.
Too much H+.
Define alkalosis.
Condition of excessive base.
Too much OH-.
What is the normal pH for plasma?
7.4
What are the pH buffers in the blood?
- Bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)
- Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Explain how pH buffers reduce the acidity of blood.
Hydroxide bonds with carbonic acid (H2CO3) resulting in bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) plus H20
What glands secrete hormones that are carried in the blood?
NA
Define immunity.
Body’s ability to resist disease.
What are 2 functions of leukocytes?
1. Travel in blood
2. Acts in defense while in tissues
What are the 3 formed elements of blood?
- Erythrocytes
- Leucocytes
- Thrombocytes (platelets)
What is the liquid fraction of blood called?
Plasma.
What is serum?
Plasma minus the clotting proteins.
Define whole blood.
Uniformly mixed blood.
Define fractionated blood.
Blood separated into its components.
What is heparin?
The natural anticoagulant contained in basophil and mast cell granulesand also produced by endothelial cells.

Usually secreted into the plasma.
Define hematopoiesis.
Manufacturing of blood.
Define erythropoiesis.
Manufacturing of RBC.
What are the fetal sites of hematopoiesis?
- Yolk sac
- liver
- spleen
- tonsils
- 2-4 months red bone marrow
- lymph nodes
- thymus
What are the adult sites of hematopoiesis?
- Sternum
- Cranium
- Ribs
- Illiac Crest of Pelvis
- Bodies of Vertebrae
- Proximal Epiphysis of Femur
What are the characteristics of an adult RBC? .
- Anucleate
- no DNA
- no RNA
- No protein=no repair and maintenance
What is the life span of an RBC?
100-120 days.
Where does a RBC get the ATP necessary for function?
Anaerobic mechanisms.
What does the RBC use ATP for?
1. To push out Na+ of cell and to push K+ into cell.
2. Reduce Fe+++ to Fe++.
What is hemoglobin bonded with oxygen called? What is its color?
Oxyhemoglobin. Scarlet red.
What is hemoglobin with no oxygen called? What is its color?
Deoxyhemoglobin. Crimson.
Describe the process of erythropoiesis.
?
What is the difference between a reticulocyte and a mature erythrocyte?
Reticulocyte still coding for Hb.
How many oxygen atoms does it take to saturate one molecule of hemoglobin?
4 oxygen molecules.
How many molecules of Hb are there in one RBC?
250-280 million hemoglobin in RBC.
Why is carbon monoxide poisoning so easy to get?
Binds 210x more frequently to hemoglobin than oxygen.
What symptom is indicative of CO poisoning? What is it due to?
Turning red because when hemoglobin is attached to CO, carboxyhemoglobin, it color becomes cherry red.
Does the pigment heme ALWAYS appear red?
No because when Iron Fe++ is stripped off the pigment piece, the color is greenish.
What is the globin portion of hemoglobin made of?
Protein
What are 2 problems in patients with sickle cell anemia?
Blood Clotting therefore there is interference with oxygen delivery.
Does Hb hold oxygen better in hot or cold temps?
NA
Does it hold oxygen better in higher or lower pH?
NA
Define Hemolysis.
Rupture of blood cells.
Explain the process of destruction and recycling of RBCs.
1. Lives 100 - 120 days.

2. Then death by hemolysis. Now there is hemoglobin spilled into plasma.

3. Increase Hb in plasma.

4. Phagocytes by WBC. Breaks down the hemoglobin into two parts.

Heme - pigment and mineral part. Mineral is Fe++. Some of Fe++ will be taken back to red bone marrow and recycled, or stored in your liver. Other of iron is lost through elimination of waste.

Globin - protein. degraded to amino acids that can be recycled to your cells.
Define hemolytic jaundice.
Yellow tissues.

From bilirubin (a water-soluble orange red pigment), which is a part of bile that has been dumped into the blood. Bilirubin is from biliverdin (a water-insoluble greenish pigment); which is sent to liver to become bilirubin.
Define anemia and name its main symptom.
Anemia: condition in which the blood has abnormally low oxygen-carrying capacity.

Main symptom: lacking sufficient hemoglobin, too small cells or little RBC count.
Define hypoxia.
Low oxygen in tissues.
Define polycythemia and name its main symptom.
Polycythemia: Abnormal excess of erythrocytes(RBC).

Main symptom: Elevated blood pressure.
Name the 2 tests used to determine if a patient has anemia.
Hematocrit and Total RBC count
What is the normal range for a total RBC count? Is it higher for men or women? Why?
Males: 5.1-5.8 x 10^6 RBC/mm3 whole blood (5,100,000)

Females: 4.3-5.2 x 10^6 RBC/mm3 whole blood (4,300,000)

Men carry more blood than women.
Explain what a hematocrit is.
Judgment of blood.
Define normcytic hypochromic anemia.
- normal RBC # of cells
- *too small cell size
- Low in Hb = hypoxic
Define normochromic hypocytic anemia.
- Normal sized RBC
- Low in number of cells
- Low Hb = hypoxic
What is the hormone that stimulates RBC production and where is it produced?
Erythropoietin and it is produced in the kidneys.
Explain how oxygen levels affect the production of erythropoietin.
Low O2 (hypoxic) will cause the kidneys to increase production of erythropoietin. As O2 rises, kidney’s will decrease production.
What are 7 factors causing anemia?
1. Genes
2. Trauma
3. Premature of RBC prematurely
4. Small cell size
5. Low number of cells
6. Low protein and iron
What are 3 conditions caused by polycythemia?
1. Clotting unbroken vessels
2. Viscous blood
3. Elevated blood pressure
Define thrombus.
A clot that develops and persists in an unbroken blood vessel.
Define embolus.
When the thrombus breaks away from the vessel wall and floats freely in the bloodstream.
Define embolism.
Embolus blocking the vessel.
Name some characteristics of WBCs.
Complete cells with nucleus, mitochondria, and Golgi apparatus.
What is the normal range of WBC in whole blood?
?
What are the 2 general classes of WBCs?
Granulocytes and Agranulocytes.
Explain the developmental pathway of granulocytic WBC.
Developed in red marrow tissue: Stem cell to Hemocytoblast to Myeloblast; then 3 different types.
1. Neutroblast to Neutrophil
2. Eosinoblast to Eosinophil
3. Basoblast to basophil.
What are the most prevalent granulocytes? The second most prevalent? The least prevalent?
Neutrophil
Lymphocyte
Monocyte
Eosinophil
Basophil
Name some characteristics of neutrophils.
- Pale pink or lavender granules.

- Granules are lysosomes filled with lysozyme.

- Phagocytes (microbe in vacuole digested by lysozyme).

-40-70% WBC
During what kind of condition do neutrophils elevate? What kind of condition causes them to be low?
Bacterial infections elevate Neutrophils. Decreases when there are viruses.
Name some characteristics of eosinophils.
- 1-4% WBC in blood

- Granules: lysosomes filled with lysozyme

- Phagocyte too

- Fast to arrive at infection scene
What are the conditions that cause eosinophil numbers to be elevated?
- Increase with certain allergies
- Rheumatic fever
- *parasitic infections (especially worms)
Name some characteristics of basophils. What are they also called if they are present in the tissue?
?
Name the characteristics of the inflammatory response.
Causes edema: excess fluid in your tissue and it causes swelling because the fluid dilutes microbes or toxins (such as bee toxin).
Explain how the inflammatory response is started?
Vasodilation of nearby vessels from chemical called histamine.
Explain how the inflammatory response is stopped?
Vasoconstriction due to serotonin chemical.
What condition causes basophil numbers to be elevated?
Allergic conditions.
What is the main characteristic that differentiates agranulocytes from granulocytes?
You can see granules in the cytoplasm.
Define the developmental pathway of agranulocytic WBC.
Development:
- Stem cells then to hemocytoblast
- then to monoblast, which make monocytes,
- or lymphoblast, which makes lymphocytes.
Name some characteristics of monocytes. What are they called when found in tissues?
- Largest sized WBC
- 12-25 micrometer in diameter
- In tissues, they enlarge so they are called MACROphage; big phagocytes
Name some characteristics of leukocytes.
- Colorless, to see we use wright’s blood stain
- All WBC have nucleus that is visble when stained.
What kind of condition causes numbers of leukocytes to elevate?
When something is foreign in the body (antigen or hapten) or damage to the body.
Define antigen.
Foreign invader
Name the unusual ability leukocytes have.
1. Only WBC that lives decades.
2. Lymphocytes newly formed are capable of forming new cell lives.
Example: They may become
1. Fibroblasts to lash tissue together - “healing”
2. Macrophages to fight infection. 3. Most often they co
nvert to: T-lymphocyte or B-lymphocyte for “Specific Defense Pathways”
Define hapten.
Foreign substance less than 10,000 molecular weight and usually unseen in body.
Name the 2 specific pathways of immune defense.
1. Humoral Mediated Pathway
2. Specific Defense Pathway
Define humors.
Body Fluids
Define immunologic competence.
Ability to recognize disease (example: chicken pox)
Explain the developmental path of B cells.
From stem cells and then become B-lymphocyte. B-lymphocyte stay in bone marrow or go to GALT(gut associated lymphoid tissue).
Explain the immune defense path of B cells.
1. Gain immunologic competence - recognize disease
2. Then B-lymphocyte quit circulating when they get to lymph node.
3. At a later date, the antigen must ciruclate past the lymph node with a programmed B-lymphocyte in it.
4. Once the B-lymphocyte sees the antigen (the chicken pox) it will be come sensitized(alarm to fight) and then clone into two populations.
What effects does the Ag-Ig complex trigger?
“The Complement”
What is the compliment?
The compliment was a group of proteins released into the plasma earlier from in an inactive form by Monocytes.
What are 4 examples of substances in the compliment and what are their functions?
1. Macrophage Activation Factor (MAF) - makes them hungry so activates phagocytes of Ag-Ig Complex, so it can get rid of chicken pox.
2. Chemotactic Factor - like perfume; acts as a chemical attractant to bring phagocytes to scene of infection.
3. Opsonizaation Factor - lubricant over Ag0Ig complex to make phagocytes easier.
4. Cytotoxic Factor - toxin to kill microbes.
How long does it take for the WBCs to start making Igs? How long before Igs reach defense levels?
?
What do memory B lymphocytes trigger?
Triggers “The Compliment” after it recognizes Ag-Ig complex.
How does the anamnestic response influence Ig production time frames?
More efficient response. Clones plasma cells in hours up to 1-2 days quicker.
What type of condition triggers the B lymphocyte & humoral mediated immune path?
-Fungal -Bacterial -Virus - Parasite - Attack on self tissues - Attack on transplants
What type of cells are involved in the cell mediated immune pathway?
T-Lymphocytes
Describe the developmental path of T cells.
?
Describe the immune response of T cells.
?
Explain what helper T lymphocytes do during immune response.
Helper T lymphocytes present Ag(anitgen) to plasma cells, so that plasma can make Ig(antibody).
Explain what suppressor T lymphocytes do during immune response.
Suppressor T lymphocytes stop the attack.
Explain what effector T cells do during immune response.
Effector T make chemicals to fight Ag(antigen).
What are the 5 chemicals made by effector T cells and what are their functions?
1. MAF (macrophage activiation factor)
2. Chemotactic Factor
3. Opsonization Factor
4. Cytotoxic Factor
5. Transfer Factor - allow WBC to change cell lines.
What kind of condition causes T cells to be elevated?
?
What is one disease condition caused by T cells?
?
What disease specifically targets T cells?
?
What type of WBC would be elevated during an acute bacterial infection?
Neutrophil
What type of WBC would be elevated during an allergy or parasitic infection?
Eosinophil
What type of WBC would be elevated during an allergy only?
Basophil
What type of WBC would be elevated during a chronic disease?
Monocyte
What type of WBC would be elevated during an antigen attack?
Lymphocyte
What type of WBC would be elevated during a viral infection?
Lymphocyte
What test would indicate if a specific WBC was elevated or depressed?
Differential WBC Counter.
Define leucopenia.
Too little WBC.
Define Leucocytosis.
Too much WBC.
What is one disease condition that causes leucocytosis?
Leukemia.
Describe the developmental path of thrombocytes.
Stem cell to Megakaryocyte; lose nucleus - fragments - platelets(2-3 micrometer)
What is the normal number of platelets in whole blood?
250,000-500,000 mm3/whole blood
What is the function of platelets?
To aid clotting.
What type of mixture is plasma?
Serum and thrombocytes
What is the average temperature of plasma in the body?
100.4 F (38C)
What percent of plasma is water?
92%
What percent of plasma are proteins?
7-9%
What other substances can be found in plasma?
0.85-0.90% Salts - NaCl.
Other miscellaneous substances - K+, Ca++, Mg++.
HCO3: Bicarbonate
SO4: Sulfate groups
PO4: Phosphate groups
What are the 3 main proteins found in plasma? What are their functions?
1. Clotting Proteins - Largest sized protein; examples: fibrinogen/prothrombin

2. Ig (immunoglobulins aka antibodies) - for defense

3. Albumnins - give viscosity to blood and also serve as carrier molecules.
What is the most abundant blood protein?
Albumins
Define viscosity.
The thickness of liquid.
What are the main salts found in plasma?
NaCl
What are the main wastes found in plasma?
?
Define hemostasis.
?
What are the 3 mechanisms of hemostasis?
1. Vascular Spasms
2. Platelet Plug Adherence
3. Coagulation
Where do these mechanisms occur?
Local and Neural
Describe the process of a vascular spasm brought on by neural control.
Happens when there is a clean cut (example: from shaving). It takes a few minutes to occur because it sends information to the central nervous system then back to the vessel causing vasoconstriction.
How long does the vasoconstriction from this type of vascular spasm last?
It lasts for 1-6 minutes.
Describe the process of a vascular spam brought on by local stimulus.
- Trauma happens to the area then the control of blood loss is taken care of in the capillaries, arterioles, and venules by vasoconstriction.
How long does the vasoconstriction from this type of vascular spasm (local) last?
It lasts for 20-30 minutes maximum.
Describe what happens during platelet plug formation.
Endothelium(+) and platelets(+) repel, with an injury collagen(-) is exposed so the collagen(-) attracts platelets(+) causing platelet plug adherence.
Endothelium(+) and platelets(+) repel, with an injury collagen(-) is exposed so the collagen(-) attracts platelets(+) causing platelet plug adherence.
Chemicals are released (ADP and Vasopressins, which is epinephrine and serotonin.
What are the 3 chemicals released during platelet plug formation and what are their functions?
Chemicals are released: ADP and Vasopressins, which is epinephrine and serotonin.
What are the 2 pathways of coagulation?
1. Extrinsic Coagulation Pathway
2. Intrinsic Coagulation Pathway
What element is necessary for all clotting?
Ca++
What is the faster acting of the 2 pathways?
Extrinsic pathway
Describe the extrinsic coagulation pathway.
- Tissue Damage
- Tissue Thromboplastin
- Extrinsic Thromboplastin
- Extrinsic Prothrombin Activator
- Prothrombin
- Thrombin
- Fibrinogen
- Fibrin
- Clot
What condition would a lack of vitamin K cause and why?
It would cause clotting problems because Vit K is essential to produce prothrombin in the liver and prothrombin is needed in order to have thrombin then fibrinogen then to fibrin to make clot.
What triggers the intrinsic coagulation pathway?
Trauma inside the body.
How long does it take this intrisnsic pathway to achieve coagulation?
3-6 minutes
When is this pathway activated?
During all clotting events.
What disease is this pathway associated with?
Hemophilia - inability to clot properly
Describe the intrinsic coagulation pathway.
- Inactive “Platelet Coagulation Factor”/ Inactive Hageman Factor then injury in vessel leads to Active platelet coagulation factor / Active Hageman factor
- Intrinsic Thromboplastin
- Intrinsic Prothrombin Activator
- Prothrombin
- Thrombin: start platelet plug, sticky platelet
- Fibrinogen and fibrin make clot.
Describe how a clot is ended.
Step A:
- Clot retraction (syneresis)
- tightening of fibrin threads
- 30-60 min after clotting

Step B:
- Breakdown of fibrin threads
- Endothelium and platelets release healing factors

- Approximately 2 days after clot:
- Active Hageman Factor
- Activates Plasminogen
- Becomes Plasmin
- Digests Fibrin
How long does it take for a clot to disappear?
?
What is retraction or syneresis in relation to a c?lot?
It pulls the edges together merging it together making it smaller.
Define fibrinolysis.
?
Name 2 common anticoagulants and describe how they work.
1. Heparin - fast acting, interferes with/ thrombin activating fibrin

2. Coumadin (warfarin) - slow acting, interferes with Vitamin K in liver; slows prothrombin synthesis