Lecture 2-Research In Psychology

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Reliability

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the extent to which observations can be replicated

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Validity

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the extent to which observations actually reflect the topic of interest in a given study

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Operational Definition

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the definition of behaviours or qualities in terms of how they are to be measured (self-report data, physiological recordings, etc.)

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Participant Bias

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participants may act in ways they believe correspond to what the researcher is looking for

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Deception

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hiding information (find other definition ***)

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Single-Blind Study

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the participant is unaware which group they’re in

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Double-Blind Study

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neither the subject or experimenter knows what group the subject is in

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Naturalistic Observation

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allows behaviour to occur without interference by the researcher

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Case Study

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an in depth investigation of an individual’s life, used to reconstruct major aspects of a person’s life

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Surveys/Psychological Tests

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many potential formats used to gather information about specific aspects of behaviour (questionnaire, interview, etc.)

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Experimental Research

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investigator chooses an independent variable (IV) that can be manipulated and the researcher arranges for the measurement of a dependent variable (DV) then groups created via random assignment

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Experimental Group

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subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable

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Control Group

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similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment

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Inferential Statistics

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techniques that allow a researcher to interpret the values in descriptive statistics

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Critical thinking

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is the use of cognitive skills and strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome

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Research Methods

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consists of various approaches to the observation, measurement, manipulation, and control of variables in empirical studies

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Experiment

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A research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether and changes occurring a second variable as a result

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Extraneous Variables

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are any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study

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A confounding of Variables

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occurs when two variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects

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Random Assignment

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(of subjects) occurs when all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition in the study

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Within-subjects design

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when the same participants are used for the control and experimental groups

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Between-subjects design

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when comparisons are made between two different groups of participants

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Field experiments

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research studies that use settings that are very much like real life; possibly even actually in real life

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Descriptive/correlational research methods

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permit investigations to only describe patterns of behaviour and discover links/associations between variables → lack of control

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Naturalistic Observation

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when a researcher engages in careful observation of behaviour without intervening directly with the research subjects/participants

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Reactivity

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when a subjects behaviour is altered by the presence of an observer

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Surveys

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researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of participant behaviours

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Statistics

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is the use of mathematics to organize, summarize and interpret numerical data

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Descriptive statistics

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used to organize and summarize data

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Central tendency

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what constitutes a typical/average score in summarizing numerical data

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Median

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the score that falls exactly in the centre of a distribution of scores

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Mean

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the arithmetic average of the scores in a distribution (add up scores and divide by the number of scores) *the most useful but most sensitive*

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Mode

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the most frequent score in a distribution

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Frequency Polygon

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a lone figure used to present date from a frequency distribution

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Frequency Distribution

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an orderly arrangement of scores indicating the frequency of each score or a group of scores

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Negatively Skewed Distribution

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most scores pile up at the end of the scale

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Positively Skewed Distribution

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most scores pile up at the low end of the scale

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Variability

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refers to how much the scores in a data set vary from each other and the mean

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Standard Deviation (SD)

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an index if the amount of variability in a set of data

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Normal Distribution

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is a symmetrical bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern in which many human characteristics are dispersed in the population

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Relative Measures

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they assess how people score in a trait in comparison to other people

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Percentile Score

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indicates the percentage of people who score at/below a particular score

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Correlation

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exists when two variables are related to each other

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The Correlation Coefficient

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a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables

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Statistical Significance

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exists when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance are very low → usually fewer than 5/100 → the 0.05 level of significance

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Replication

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The repetition of a study to see whether earlier results are duplicated

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Meta-Analysis

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the combination of the statistical results of many studies of the same question, yielding an estimate if the size and consistency of a variable’s effects

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Generalizability

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another way of saying "ecological validity". Essentially this is the extent to which findings (from a study) can be generalized (or extended) to the those in natural settings (i.e., outside the lab)

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Sample

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the collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study

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Population

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the much larger collection of animals/people that researchers want to generalize about

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Sampling Bias

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exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn

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Placebo

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substance that resembles a drug but has not pharmacological effect

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Placebo Effect

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occurs when participants’ expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatments

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Social Desirability Bias

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a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneslf

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Response set

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a tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the context of questions

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Halo Effect

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When one’s overall evaluation in a person/object/institution spills over to influence more specific ratings

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Experimenter Bias

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When a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained