Lecture 1

Front 1

Physiology

Back 1

Biological study of the functions of living organisms and their parts

Front 2

Pathology

Back 2

*Suffering
*Where physiology went bad
*Causes of diseases
*Pathogenesis
*Disease Manifestations
*Provides a scientific foundation for clinical medicine and serves as a bridge between the basic sciences and patient care

Front 3

Pathogenesis

Back 3

Progression of disease in the human body

Front 4

The Cell

Back 4

Smallest functional unit
Level at which most disease processes initiate their effects

Front 5

Characteristics of All Cells

Back 5

1) Exchange materials with immediate environments
2) Obtain energy from nutrients
3) Synthesize complex molecules
4) Replicate

Front 6

Processes of Cellular Growth and Function

Back 6

1) Movement; 2) Communication; 3) Conductivity;
4) Metabolic absorption; 5) Secretion; 6) Excretion;
7) Respiration; 8) Reproduction; 9) Growth

Front 7

Parts of All Cells

Back 7

1) Cytoplasm; 2) Nucleus; 3) Mitochondria;
4) Ribosomes; 5) Endoplasmic Reticulum;
6) Golgi Complex; 7) Peroxisomes; 8) Lysosomes;
9) Cytoskeleton

Front 8

Cytoplasm

Back 8

Gel-like consistency
Aqueous solution

Front 9

Nucleus

Back 9

Harbors all genetic material (DNA, chromosomes, and genes)

Front 10

Mitochondria

Back 10

Power Plant of Aerobic Cells

Front 11

Ribosomes

Back 11

Produce Proteins

Front 12

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Back 12

Protein production and transportation

Front 13

Golgi Complex

Back 13

Transportation

Front 14

Peroxisomes and Lysosomes

Back 14

Digesting cellular components

Front 15

Cytoskeleton

Back 15

Structure and Function
Contains microtubules, intermediate filaments, and actin filaments

Front 16

4 Types of Body Tissues

Back 16

1) Epithelial
2) Connective
3) Nerve
4) Muscle

Front 17

Epithelial Tissue

Back 17

1)Covers and lines body surfaces
2) Forms functional components of the glad
3) Organized
4) Predicts the function of the underlying tissue; defined by its structure

Front 18

Types of Epithelial Tissue

Back 18

1) Simple Squamous; 2) Simple Cuboidal;
3) Simple Columnar;
4) Pseudo-stratified Columnar Ciliated; 5) Transitional;
6) Stratified Squamous

Front 19

Connective Tissue

Back 19

1) Supports and connects body structures
2) Forms bones, joint structure, blood cells, intracellular substances

Front 20

Muscle Tissue

Back 20

Skeletal, cardiac, smooth
Generate force and movement through contraction

Front 21

Nerve Tissue

Back 21

Designed for communication process

Front 22

3 Types of Cellular Junctions

Back 22

1) Continuous Tight Junctions
2) Adhering Junctions
3) Gap Junctions

Front 23

Continuous Tight Junctions

Back 23

1) Prevent leakage from a lumen into the intercellular space (ex: get naturally occurring e. coli at bay)
2) Wraps around the cell; seals the cell
3) Ex: intestine

Front 24

Adhering Junctions

Back 24

1) Prevent cell separation
2) Bolted together to accept mechanical force/stress
3) Ex: Desmosomes in heart and epidermis; Peristalsis

Front 25

Gap Junctions

Back 25

1) Link cytoplasms of neighboring cells
2) Create a tunnel for cells to communicate
3) Ex: cardiac and smooth muscle cells/connective tissue

Front 26

Composition of the Cell Membrane

Back 26

Phospholipid bilayer , protein, carbohydrates

Front 27

Types of Membrane Proteins

Back 27

1) Peripheral
2) Transmembrane

Front 28

Glycocalyx

Back 28

Glycoproteins and carbohydrates create a fuzzy outside layer or cell surface

Front 29

Functions of the Glycocalyx

Back 29

1) Cell-to-cell recognition and adhesion
2) Contains tissue transplant antigens
3) Contains ABO antigens in RBCs

Front 30

2 Amphipathic Lipids

Back 30

Hydrophillic and Hydrophobic

Front 31

Hydrophillic Heads

Back 31

1) Water loving
2) Polar Head Group
3) Outer Surface of the bilayer

Front 32

Hydophobic Tails

Back 32

1) Water hating
2) Fatty acid chains
3) Inner portion of the bilayer

Front 33

Purpose of Membrane Proteins

Back 33

Provide signaling roles

Front 34

4 Types of Cellular Communication

Back 34

1) Endocrine
2) Paracrine
3) Autocrine
4) Synaptic

Front 35

Endocrine Cellular Communication

Back 35

specialized endocrine cells secrete hormones into the blood to work on target cells elsewhere

Front 36

Paracrine Cellular Communication

Back 36

cells secrete local acting chemical mediators; travel a short distance to a nearby target cell

Front 37

Autocrine Cellular Communication

Back 37

Cells secrete signaling molecules which act back on the secreting cells

Front 38

Synaptic Cellular Communication

Back 38

cells secrete specialized substances (neurotransmitters) in specialized junctions

Front 39

Ligand

Back 39

Chemical

Front 40

Receptors Capable of Binding Specific Molecules

Back 40

1) Hormones; 2) Neurotransmitters; 3) Antigens
4) Lipoproteins; 5) Infectious Agents; 6) Drugs

Front 41

How are receptors classified?

Back 41

location and function

Front 42

What is the role of plasma membrane receptors?

Back 42

Provide a link across cell membranes for:
1) the movement of chemicals
2) transmitting signals
3) acting as enzymes

Front 43

Cellular Communication via Gap Junctions

Back 43

Do not enter the extracellular fluid

Front 44

What type of enzymes can pass easily through the lipid membrane?

Back 44

Fat soluble

Front 45

Signal Transduction

Back 45

incoming signals are transferred into the cell interior for interpretation and execution

Front 46

First Messenger of the Signaling Cascade

Back 46

extracellular chemical messenger acting through a messenger
Ex: hormone or neurotransmitter

Front 47

Second Messenger of the Signaling Cascade

Back 47

Receptor or relate proteins trigger a cascade of biochemical events
Receptor relates a signal to itself or initiates a companion protein to do something
Ex: gene expression, metabolism, cytoskeleton

Front 48

GLUT-4

Back 48

transporter for glucose across the cell membrane

Front 49

Types of Movement Across the Cell Membrane

Back 49

1) Passive Movement
2) Facilitated Diffusion
3) Active Transport

Front 50

Which movement requires energy: (choose all that apply)
1) Passive Movement
2) Facilitated Diffusion
3) Active Transport

Back 50

Active transport

Front 51

Which movement does not require energy: (choose all that apply)
1) Passive Movement
2) Facilitated Diffusion
3) Active Transport

Back 51

Passive Transport and Facilitated Diffusion

Front 52

Passive Movement

Back 52

1) Movement from higher concentration to lower concentration
2) Does not require energy
3) Diffusion/Osmosis

Front 53

3 Types of Facilitated Diffusion

Back 53

1) Uniport
2) Symport
3) Antiport

Front 54

Solute

Back 54

dissolves in a solvent

Front 55

Uniport

Back 55

a solute passes through the membrane one at time traveling down the concentration gradient
Ex: glucose translocation (GLUT)

Front 56

Symport

Back 56

concentration gradient of one solute drives the transport of another; 2 solutes are transported
Ex: sodium-glucose co-transporter

Front 57

Antiport

Back 57

solute in high concentration on one side and as it travels through the membrane, it drags a solute the opposite way
Ex: chloride-bicarbonate exchanger in RBC

Front 58

Is sodium concentration higher inside or outside of the cell?

Back 58

outside

Front 59

Is potassium higher inside or outside of the cell?

Back 59

inside

Front 60

Active Movement

Back 60

Against a concentration gradient

Front 61

Primary Active Movement

Back 61

Ion pumps
Ex: Na/K-ATPase, Calcium-ATPase

Front 62

Secondary Active Movement

Back 62

Co- and counter transport

Front 63

What happens when one ATP is cleaved during the Na/K-ATP process?

Back 63

3 sodium are pushed out of the cell
2 potassium at pushed into the cell

Front 64

What is the overall net charge of the inside of a cell?

Back 64

Negative

Front 65

What is the overall net charge outside of the cell?

Back 65

Positive

Front 66

Action Potential

Back 66

rapid change in membrane potential caused by a sudden change in the permeability of ions across the membrane

Front 67

Depolarization

Back 67

caused by sudden opening of sodium channels and influx of sodium into the cell
*positive charge inside the cell*

Front 68

Is the resting membrane potential in the cell positive or negative?

Back 68

Negative

Front 69

Ions Channels that Generate Action Potentials

Back 69

1) Non-gated channels (pores)
2) Ligand (chemical) channels
3) Voltage gated channels

Front 70

Non-Gated Channels

Back 70

*Pores
*Selective movement of ions charge with concentration gradient
*No gate

Front 71

Ligand Gated Channels

Back 71

Ligand binding results in channel opening and ion movement

Front 72

Voltage Gated Channels

Back 72

*voltage sensing results in channel opening and ion movement
*open in response to depolarization

Front 73

Channels

Back 73

*selective for specific inorganic cations or anions
*provide movement down a concentration gradient without metabolic energy required

Front 74

Anabolism

Back 74

build-up things

Front 75

Catabolism

Back 75

Take things down

Front 76

Anaerobic Glycolysis

Back 76

*Glucose splits into 2 molecules of pyruvate and phosphate intermediates without the presence of oxygen
*Net production: 2 ATP
*Cannot sustain cell function in most cells

Front 77

Aerobic Glycolysis

Back 77

*Needs oxygen
*Mitochondria oxidizes pyruvic acid into 6 carbon dioxide molecules and 6 water molecules during the Krebs' cycle
*Net production: 36 ATP

Front 78

What does pyruvate form in the absence of oxygen?

Back 78

lactic acid

Front 79

What organs can use lactate?

Back 79

Liver
*Brain and heart

Front 80

What changes do cells go through to adapt?

Back 80

1) Size
2) Number
3) Cell type

Front 81

When does normal adaptation occur?

Back 81

in response to need and appropriate stimulus
*If no need, adaptive response stops

Front 82

-trophy

Back 82

*to nourish
*condition of nutrition or growth

Front 83

-plasia

Back 83

*to form
8condition of formation or development

Front 84

Atrophy

Back 84

*to grow smaller cells
*cells can function more efficiently given environmental conditions

Front 85

Hypertrophy

Back 85

*to grow bigger cells
*to meet cellular demands for more efficient functioning
*occurs in amitotic cells

Front 86

Hyperplasia

Back 86

*to form more cells
*occurs in mitotic cells
*adaptive and controlled
*due to turn-on of cell proliferating genes and use of growth hormones

Front 87

Metaplasia

Back 87

*to form different cell types
*always occurs within the same tissue group
*reprogramming of stem cells
*organization of tissue is maintained
*reversible if aggravating stimuli removed

Front 88

Dysplasia

Back 88

*to from irregular cells
*deranged, irregular cell growth
*cells vary in sizes, shape, appearance, and nuclei are in different stages of mitosis

Front 89

Cause of Atrophy

Back 89

1) Disuse (casted leg); 2) Denervation (paralyzed limbs); 3) Lack of endocrine stimulation (menopause, thymic atrophy); 4) Decreased nutrition; 5) Ischemia or decrease in blood flow (MI, stroke, CV disease)

Front 90

Example of Physiologic Hypertrophy

Back 90

Exercise = bigger skeletal and cardiac cells

Front 91

Example of Pathologic Hypertrophy

Back 91

*prolonged obstruction of urine outflow (BPH) = thickening and fibrosis of bladder
*HTN = LVH = HF

Front 92

Example of Compensatory Hypertrophy

Back 92

removal of one kidney = enlargement of remaining kidney (increased workload)

Front 93

Example of Physiologic Hyperplasia

Back 93

*wound-healing
*hormonal: estrogen during pregnancy = increased breast and uterus size

Front 94

Example of Compensatory Hyperplasia

Back 94

liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy

Front 95

Example of Pathologic Hyperplasia

Back 95

Abnormal hormonal stimuli = too much estrogen = proliferating endometrium or abnormal menses

Front 96

What is the cause of metaplasia?

Back 96

chronic irritation and inflammation
*when this change occurs in respiratory tract or cervix = increased risk for cancer

Front 97

What factors is cellular injury dependent on?

Back 97

1) etiology; 2) duration; 3) severity of the inciting injury; 4) cell type; 5) stage of cell cycle; 6) cell adaptability

Front 98

What cell components are particularly vulnerable to injury?

Back 98

1) Membranes
2) Mitochondria
3) Endoplasmic reticulum
4) Golgi complex

Front 99

When do morphologic reactions occur?

Back 99

only after critical biochemical (molecular) damage

Front 100

Systemic Manifestations of Cellular Injury

Back 100

1) Fever
2) Malaise
3) Tachycardia
4) Pain
5) Increased circulating WBCs

Front 101

Fever

Back 101

*cytokine release from inflammation to the hypothalamus; causes hypothalamus to reset
*always region closest to the hypothalamus; shortest trip

Front 102

Causes of Cellular Injury

Back 102

1) Physical agents
2) Radiation
3) Chemical
4) Biologic agents
5) Nutritional imbalances

Front 103

Mechanisms of Cellular Injury

Back 103

1) Free radical injury
2) Hypoxia = impaired calcium homeostasis

Front 104

Cell Swelling

Back 104

*water follows sodium
*loss of ATP gradient and sodium influx

Front 105

Cellular Accumulations during Cell Injury

Back 105

1) Lipids; 2) Carbohydrates; 3) Proteins; 4) Pigments;
5) Calcium; 6) Urate

Front 106

Irreversible Cell Injury

Back 106

1) Cell vacuolization (auto-digestion of self)
2) Critical drop in ATP
3) Loss of calcium homeostasis

Front 107

Cellular Death

Back 107

acute or chronic stress exceeded by the ability of a cell to adapt

Front 108

Necrosis

Back 108

*death of cells or tissues through injury or disease (localized area of the body)
*cell swelling followed by autolysis
*large number of cells

Front 109

Apoptosis

Back 109

*preprogrammed cell death; genetically determined
*internal
*self-destruct mechanism
*nuclear & cytoplasmic shrinkage of a cell followed by fragmentation and phagocytosis by neighboring cells

Front 110

Conditions Activating Apoptosis

Back 110

1) Development of morphogenesis; 2) Radiation;
3) Immune system regulation; 4) Viral infections;
5) Cancers; 6) Toxins