Learning Theory And Cbt

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Effectiveness of Classical Conditioning
(CS-US Sequence: Forward Conditioning)

Back 1

-for classical conditioning to occur:
***CS must come before the US, called forward conditioning

***conditioning occurs only when presentation of the US seems to depend on presentation of the CS (Sequence and Contingency)

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Effectiveness of Classical Conditioning
(CS-US Interval: Delay Conditioning)

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-Delay conditioning is most effective for establishing a CR

-involves presenting the CS so that it precedes and overlaps presentation of the US
-generally the most effective interval is about 0.5 seconds

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Effectiveness of Classical Conditioning
(Number of Trials)

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-the greater the number of trials, the stronger and more persistent the CR

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Classical Extinction (what it is)

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-after established CS-CR connection has been made

-if CS is repeatedly presented w/out US, the CS-CR connection eventually decays

-to avoid, occassional "refresher trials" are needed

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Classical Extinction (2 important facts)

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-following extinction, fewer trials are needed to re-establish a CS-CR relationship than needed to establish initially

-Conditioned RARELY extinguishes all at once...evidence of a SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY demonstrates a CR is NOT eliminated by extinction trials and that learning is never lost but its is instead inhibited

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Stimulus Generalization

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Following classical conditioning, an experimental subject often responds with a conditioned response not only to the CS but also stimuli that are similar to the CS

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Stimulus Generalization
(Examples)

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-stimulus generalization gradient
***example dog conditioned to salivate at certain tone; following conditioning, dog would also salivate to other tones, but the less similar to the tone to original, less the magnitude of salivation response

-stimulus generalization not confined to single sense, sometimes picture or spoken word of CS can elicit CR

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Stimulus Discrimination

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-the ability to discriminate between similar stimuli and respond only to the CS with a CR

-established through discrimination training which involves selective reinforcement and extinction

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Experimental Neurosis

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-sometimes when discriminations are difficult, organism will exhibit unusual behaviors such as restlessness, aggressiveness, or fear

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Higher-Order Conditioning

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-used it to explain how conditioned responses are acquired in the absence of unconditioned stimulus

-when a 2nd neutral stimulus was repeatedly paired with a previously conditioned stimulus, the 2nd neutral stimulus alone eventually produced a conditioned response



-also called second-order conditioning when it involves a 2nd neutral stimulus, 3rd order when it entails a 3rd neutral stiumulus and so on

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Therapies Based on Classical Conditioning

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-directed primarily towards helping a client:
**unlearn previously learned connections btwn specific stimuli and certain maladaptive behaviors

*includes COUNTERCONDITIONING

AVERSIVE COUNTERCONDITIONING

CLASSICAL EXTINCTION

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Treatments based on counterconditioning

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pair a maladaptive behavior with an incompatible behavior in order to eliminate the former

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Reciprocal Inhibition

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-form of counterconditioning
-developed by Wolpe to alleviate anxiety

-pairing a stimulus that produces anxiety (CS ) with a stimulus that produces relaxation or other incompatible response like assertiveness and sexual arousal (US)

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Systematic Desensitization
(general)

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-Also known as Dismantling Strategy

-based on reciprocal inhibition

-involves pairing hierarchically-arranged anxiety-evoking stimuli with relaxation in order to eliminate the anxiety response

-research concludes that it is not the counterconditioning but extinction (or exposure to anxiety-provoking stimuli [CS] without experiencing the feared stimulus [US]) is the primary factor responsible for the benefits of systematic desensitization

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First Stage of Systematic Desensitization
(Relaxation Training)

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training client in some type of deep muscle relaxation like progressive relaxation

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Systematic Desensitization
2nd Stage: Constructing the Anxiety Hierarchy

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-events related to the target behavior that are ordered on the basis of the amount of anxiety they evoke, using SUDS...

-so final version of the hierarchy contains about 10-15 items

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Systematic Desensitization 3rd stage: Desensitization in Imagination

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-relaxation is paired with presentation of items in the anxiety hierarchy beginning with the least anxiety-evoking item

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Systematic Desensitization 4th stage: In Vivo Desensitization

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-after client has been desensitized to about 75 to 85% of the hierarchy items

-facing those situations that correspond to hierarchy items that hav ebeen successfully desensitized in imagination

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Behavioral Sex Therapy (Counterconditioning)

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-often use in vivo techniques that resemble systematic desensitization

-SENSATE FOCUS: pairing situations that evoke performance anxiety with pleasurable physical sensations and relaxation

-refrain from genital sex, homework assignments involve giving and receiving pleasure through touch

-initial assignments entail non-genital touching followed by increasingly more initimate encounters that eventually include non-demand genital touching

-research has found to be effective for premature ejaculation ("squeeze technique") and vaginismus (relaxation and progressive dilators)

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Treatments Based on Aversive Counterconditioning

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-also known as aversive conditioning and aversion therapy

-pairs the target behavior or stimulus associated with it (CS) with a stimulus (US) that naturally evokes an unpleasant responses--->maladaptive behavior and stimuli relate to it elicit an undesirable response and are avoided

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In Vivo Aversion Therapy

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-used to treat:
**drug and alcohol addiction, cigarette smoking, and other addictive behaviors
**abnormal sexual behaviors
**self-injurious behaviors

-pairing target behavior (fetish object, CS) with aversive stimulus (electric shock, US) so that target behavior is avoided because it produces an unpleasant sensation

-2 conditions: target behavior poses a greater danger than the aversive technique and/or when behavior has not responded to other treatments

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Evaluation of In Vivo Aversion Therapy

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***Moderately effective initially for some patients and some problems (especially cigarette smoking)

***associated with high relapse rates and limited generalizibility

***more successful when tx is supplemented by booster sessions and when aversive stimulus is similar to target behavior (strength?)

***electric shock more effective for treating alcoholism
***stale cigarette smoke and rapid smoking are productive for decreasing cigarette smoking

***overall more effective when administered in conjunction with other treatments

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Covert Sensitization

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-imagine rather than confront an aversive condition while simultanenously imagining engaging in maladaptive behavior

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Two factor theory of learning and phobic response

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-development of phobic response is a result of BOTH classical and operant conditioning

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Treatments Based on Clinical Extinction

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Techniques involve exposing the client to the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus (classical)

while inhibiting his usual avoidance response (negative reinforcement, operant)

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In vivo Exposure with Response Prevention

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client is exposed in "real life" to anxiety-arousing stimuli for a prolonged period and is prohibited from using avoidance
-good treatment for OCD

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In vivo Exposure with Response Prevention (Evaluation)

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-long continuous exposure more effective

-self-controlled exposure can be as effective as therapist-controlled for less severe cases

-exposure in a group can be as effective as individual

-exposure to distressing stimulus and response prevention (avoidance?) are both essential components

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Implosive Therapy

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conducted in imagination and involves presenting the feared stimulus vividly enough so as to arouse high levels of anxiety

-images used during treatment are embellished with psychodynamic themes

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Graduated Exposure

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-exposing client initially to situations that produce minimal anxiety and then gradually progressing to those that evoke strong anxiety

-helpful for reducing avoidance and fear that may be caused by initial exposure to high-anxiety arousing situations

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EMDR

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-more likely like imaginal exposure technique since eye movements are unneccesary

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Instrumental Learning

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learning is the result of connections that develop between responses and stimuli as the consequence of trial and error

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Thonrdike's law of effect

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positive consequences increase behavior while negative ones often have little or no effect

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Skinner and operant conditioning

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-principles of reinforcement and punishment can be viewed as an extension of Thorndike's law of effect

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Reinforcement

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-Increases the behavior

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"positive" (punishment or reinforcement)

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refers to application of stimulus (something is added)

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"negative" (punishment or reinforcement)

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-withholding or removing stimulus

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Punishment

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decreases the behavior it follows

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Example of Negative Punishment

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taking away a child's allowance whenever she back talks in order to decrease that behavior

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Example Positive Punishment

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slapping a dog with a rolled up newspaper after he chews your favorite shoes to stop this undesirable chewing behavior

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Example of Positive Reinforcement

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-cat's pulling a string behavior increased because it led to attainment of food

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Example of Negative Reinforcement

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when pressing a lever stops an electric shock, lever-pressing behavior will increase

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Effectiveness of operant conditioning by measuring operant strength

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-determine the 1) rate of responding during acquisition trials and/or 2) the total number of responses made during extinction trials (the period when no reinforcement is provided)

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Operant Conditioning Extinction

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-Withholding reinforcement from a previously reinforced behavior in order to decrease or eliminate that behavior

-response disappears gradually after initial phase in which responding is more variable and forceful (called extinction or response burst)

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Primary reinforcers

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Unconditioned (inherently desirable and do not depend on experience to acquire, like food and water)

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Secondary Reinforcers

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Conditioned (their value is acquired only thru repeated association with primary reinforces like tokens, applause, and gold stars)

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Generalized conditioned reinforcer

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when a CONDITIONED reinforcer is paired with several different primary reinforcers...like money because it can be exchanged for a variety of primary reinforcers

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schedules of reinforcement
(general)

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-immediate reinforcers and punishers are always more effective than delayed ones

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Continuous schedule

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-reinforcement is presented after each response

-rate of acquisition of a behavior is fastest on this schedule

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Continuous schedule
pros and cons

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acquisition is quick but satiation and rate of extinction are high

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Intermittent Schedules
(overall)

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best way to maintain a behavior once an operant behavior has been acquired

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Intermittent Schedule
(Fixed Interval)

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reinforced after a fixed PERIOD OF TIME regardless of number of responses made

***produce low rates of responding
***may stop responding until end of interval
***work environment, wage is FI, alone produces minimal levels of work

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Schedules of Reinforcement
(Variable Interval)

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-Interval of Time between delivery of reinforcers varies in an unpredictable manner
-for example, VI-30 the average length of time between reinforcers is 30 seconds but the amount of time varies from reinforcer to reinforcer
(15,40,30,20, 45)

-steady but low rate

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Schedules of Reinforcement
(Fixed Ratio)

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-a reinforcer is delivered each time the subject makes a specific number of responses
-subject quickly learns that the greater the number of responses the greater the reward

-produce a relatively high steady rate of responding

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Schedules of Reinforcement
(Variable Ratio)

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-reinforcers provided after a variable number of responses
-theres an average like VR-20 but exact number varies
-produces the highest rates of responding as well as responses that are the most resistant to extinction
-SLOT MACHINES

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Superstitious Behavior

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-accidental, noncontingent reinforcement that leads to a behavior

-like when your repeat the behavior u were doing right before delivery of reinforcement

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Stimulus Control

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-two-factor learning
-behavior does or does not occur due to the presence or absence of discriminitive stimuli
-e.g. pigeon might be reinforced for pecking a key when a green light is on but not when a red light is on
-result of classical conditionng (discrimination training)
-explains why an organism engages in certain behaviors in some situations but not in others

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Positive Discriminative Stimulus

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it signals that reinforcement will occur as the consequence of a given response

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Negative disriminative stimulus

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it signals that the response will not be reinforced

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Stimulus/Response Generalization in Operant Conditioning

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when similar stimuli elicit same response
-in operant conditioning, it's the positive discriminative stimulus

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Escape Conditioning

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-negative reinforcement associated with escape behavior
-behavior increases because allows the organism to escape a negative reinforcer

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Avoidance Conditioning

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-negative reinforcement associated with avoidance behavior
-the onset of the negative reinforcer is preceeded by a cue, organism learns if it perofrms the target behavior in the presence of a cue, it can avoid the negative reinforcer all together

Front 62

Behavior Chain/Chaining

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-a number of distinct responses
-each response serves as both a secondary reinforcer for the previous response and a positive discriminative stimulus for the next response
-the final response is usually followed by a primary reinforcer
(Baking a CAKE is an example)

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Forward Chaining

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begins with the first component of the chain and gradually works thru the entire chain

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Backward Chaining

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Components in the chain are established in reverse order

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Shaping

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REINFORCING successive approximations to the desired behavior

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Shaping vs Chaining

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-both used to develop new behaviors
-in SHAPING only the final behavior is of interest
-in CHAINING the entire sequence of responses is important

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Increasing behavior with reinforcement

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most behavioral treatments rely on positive reinforcement

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Effectiveness of reinforcement is influenced by a number of factors:
PROMPTS

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-prompts facilitate the acquisition of new behavior; when it signals that the behavior will be reinforced, it acts a a positive discriminative stimulus

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FADING

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gradual removal of a prompt

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Effectiveness of positive reinforcement is influenced by a number of factors:

Contingency

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reinforcer should be available only when target behavior has been performed

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Effectiveness of positive reinforcement is influenced by a number of factors:

Immediacy

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delivered immediately after target behavior

Front 72

Effectiveness of positive reinforcement is influenced by a number of factors:

Magnitude

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up to a point, the greater the magnitude of the reinforcer, the greater its effectiveness

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Satiation

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when reinforcer is too great of a magnitude it can lose its reinforcing value
-primary reinforcers (sleep, food, water, sex) are more susceptible to satiation

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Effectiveness of positive reinforcement is influenced by a number of factors:

Schedules of Reinforcement

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new behavior is most rapidly established when reinforcement is applied on a CONTINUOUS SCHEDULE

-maintenance of behavior (resistance to extinction) is maximized when reinforcement is on an INTERMITTENT SCHEDULE

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Thinning vs Fading

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-thinning refers to reducing the proportion of reinforcements
-fading is gradual removal of prompts

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punishment

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-DECREASE a behavior by applying or withdrawing a stimulus.
-sooner the more effective
-consistency
-moderate intensity
-verbal clarification
-removal of all positive punishment
-punishment more effective when combined with reinforcement or training of other behaviors

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Habituation

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stop responding because punishment or reinforcement less effective

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Evaluation of
Punishment

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does not eliminate a behavior but suppresses it
-effects are often short-term, inconsistent and limited to situation
-several negative side effects including increase aggressiveness, negative emotions, avoidance behavior

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Verbal reprimands

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-a form of punishment
-used to suppress unwanted behaviors
-inconsistent effects and temporary (unless backed-up by other consequences)
-and sometimes can act as positive reinforcers and actually increase target behavior

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Overcorrection

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-positive punishment
-encompasses restitution and positive practice
-woman on ward who throws objects, overturns bed (straighten room, make up all the beds in the ward)

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Response Cost

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-fines for traffic violations
-decreasing allowance when engaging in undesirable behavior
-late fees for paying your credit card bill
-negative punishment

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Time-Out

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-removing all sources of positive reinforcement for a brief, prespecified peirod following a behavior in order to decrease it
-usually classified as negative punishment

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Time-Out evaluation

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-short time jsut as effective as longer
-more effective when combined with reinforcement for alternative behaviors

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Decreasing behaviors with extinction

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-consistency: positive reinforcement must be consistantly withheld, a single exception can re-establish the behavior
-schedule of reinforcement: extinction more rapid when continuous, then variable or fixed interval (time)
-great magnitude and duration of previous reinforcement, more resistant the behavior towards extinction
-extinction should be used along with reinforced alternative behaviors

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The existence of separate short and long term (memory) stores has been supported by studies of people with....

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anterograde amnesia (can recall info stored prior to brain injury/trauma, but can't retain any new information)

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The existence of separate short and long term (memory) stores has also been supported by...

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serial position effect (items in the beginning of list been rehearsed and stored in LTM while items in the end are in short term)

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Levels of Processing

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-an alternative to Info (Multi) Model
-differences in memory are due to differences in depth of processing
**structural: (is the word in capital letters)
**phonemic: (what does the word rhyme with)
**semantic (deepest level)

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Types of Long-Term Memory

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Implicit/Procedural ("learning how"..automatic...cerebellum)
Explicit/Declarative ("facts"..hippocampus/frontal lobe)
**includes episodic (autobiographical)

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Prospective Memory

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-(to remember to remember)
-outside of controlled situations, older adults do better (use cues, like calendar)

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How was learned helplessness modified for hopelessness

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Attributions to feelings of hopelessness not helplessness

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Bandura’s Modeling 4 processes (social/observational learning)

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attention
retention
reproduction
motivation (can be self reinforcing)

Mere exposure is not sufficient still need to attend to it, reproduce it.

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Wolpe’s neurotic depression

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One type of depression identified by Wolpe
Respone to anxiety
Treat with systematic desensitization

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Respondent conditioning

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Another name for classical conditioning

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Biofeedback and headaches

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-equally effective as relaxation
-Different biofeedback for each headache
-EMG biofeedback, training the individual to relax the frontalis muscle in the forehead
(decrease muscle tension of face and neck for tension headaches)

Thermal hand warming
for migraines

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Biofeedback

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-tension headaches (but relaxation also effective)
-tx of choice for Raynaud's disease, urinary, and fecal incontinence

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Meichebaum self-instructional thearapy

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external (overt)--->internal (covert) instruction
-modeling
-cognitive restructuring

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Effective punishment

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Immediately
moderat intensity
consistent
(however, merely suppresses not eliminating behavior...negative side effects, short-term results)

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Immediate memory

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Sensory memory
-retained for no more than a few seconds
-intact for Alzheimer’s

Front 99

Which reinforcement schedule easiest to extinct

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FIXED INTERVAL

(in order)
Variable Interval
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio

Front 100

Simultaneous conditioning

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US and CS presented at same time
-not effective

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What kind of reinforcement is Escape Conditioning?
+/- punishment/reinforcement

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-Negative Reinforcement
-Rat presses lever to avoid shock
(behavior is increased because it removes the stimulus)

Front 102

Chaining vs shaping-

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In shaping, only the final (terminal) bx is of interest (i.e., speaking a full word), -in chaining, the entire sequence of responses is important (i.e., making a cake).

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EMDR effectiveness

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- Eye movements are unnecessary; EMDR = imaginal exposure technique

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Blocking vs Higher order

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Blocking-simultaneously as CS
Higher order conditioning: prior to CS

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Thinning

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continuous reinforcement to intermittant

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Fading

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gradual removal of a prompt that signifies a behavior will be reinforced

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Implosive Therapy

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Similar to in vivo exposure with response prevention but using imagination. Avoidance bxs are believed to be learned during childhood and represent conflicts related to sexual or aggressive impulses. Images used during treatment are embellished with psychodynamic themes.

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Latent learning (Tolman)

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-learning is oriented to achievement of specific goals
Learning can occur without reinforcement and without being manifested in actual performance improvement. Tolman’s research showed that rats formed “cognitive maps” of mazes even without being reinforced.

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Learning theorists describe transference as a case of

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generalization.