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191 Cards in this Set

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Withdrawal, depression, and developmental delays resulting from the loss of an attachment figure during infancy, especially when the loss occurs during the second half of the first year of life.
ANACLITIC DEPRESSION
A social condition that may develop when society experiences unusual stress. Characterized by a lack societal norms, a lack of social structure, and, among individuals, apathy, isolation, and loss of personal and social values.
ANOMIE
Impairment in the production and/or comprehension of language, "Broca's Aphasia" involves difficulty producing written or spoken language with little or no trouble understanding language. "Wernicke's aphasia" is characterized by an inability to comprehend written or spoken language.
APHASIA
according to Piaget, cognitive development occurs when a state of disequilibrium brought on by a discrepancy between the person's current understanding of the world and reality is resolved through adaptation, which entails the processes of the assimilation and accommodation." Assimilation" refers to the incorporation of new knowledge into existing cognitive schemas, while " accommodation" is the modification of existing schemas to incorporate new knowledge.
assimilation and accommodation (PIAGET)
a lack of coordination while performing voluntary movements; there may be a loss of balance, as well. Can be due to brain damage resulting from alcohol use.
ATAXIA
division of the peripheral nervous system involved in the control of visceral functions ( e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, sweating). Consist of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS)
methods used to induce compliance in another person. Basis of social power include coercive, reward, experts, legitimate, referent, and informational.
BASES OF SOCIAL POWER
tendencies to act in certain predictable ways. Some investigators argue that basic temperament (e.g., activity level, sociability, emotionality) is one of the characteristics that has a strong genetic component.
.BASIC TEMPERMENT
instrument used to test cognitive and motor skills of infants aged two months to 30 months. The BSID is predictive of cognitive problems if the scores are significantly below average.
BAYLEY SCALE OF INFANT DEVELOPMENT (BSID)
a predisposition to act in a particular way towards an attitude object. Behavioral intentions consists of a personal component ( the person's attitude toward engaging in that behavior) and social component ( the person's belief about what other people think he should do).
BEHAVIORAL INTENTION
assumes that biological, psychological, and social factors all play an important role in human functioning and encourages social workers to consider and integrate a broad range of influences when evaluating a client's development and behavior at all levels ( individual, family, community, etc.) and to examine the clients appraisals of these influences and reactions to them in terms of physiology, emotion, cognitive, and behavior.
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH
the concept that human behavior is the result of interactions between a person and his environment.
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL INTERACTION
a group of people authorized to establish an agency's objectives and policies and to oversee the activities of agency personnel who have day to day responsibility for implementing those policies. In a private or voluntary social agency, the board of directors has ultimate responsibility for the agencies programmatic and financial operations. In public agencies, a board has less power and takes on more of an advisory or administrative role.
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
assessment tool used with infants up to one month of age to assess their reflexes, muscle tone, response to simulation, etc.
BRAZELTON NEONATAL ASSESSMENT SCALE (BNAS)
distinguishes between four levels of environmental influence on development – microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem
BRONFENBRENNER'S ECOLOGICAL MODEL
The hypothesis that lower susceptibility to stress, greater life satisfaction, and other positive outcomes are associated with a perception that one has adequate social support.
BUFFERING HYPOTHESIS
involves planning, seeking, and monitoring services from different social agencies and direct service staff on behalf of one client. Typically, one agency takes primary responsibility for the client and assigns a case manager. This procedure makes it possible for many social workers in one or more agencies to coordinate their efforts to serve one client through teamwork.
CASE MANAGEMENT
geographic area in which all potential clients are served by a given social agency.
CATCHMENT AREA
proposal that depression is caused by lower – than – normal levels of norepinephrine.
CATECHOLAMINE HYPOTHESIS
the nerve cells, fibers, and tissues that make up the spinal cord and brain.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
the outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres of the brain. Involved in higher – order sensory, emotional, motor, and intellectual activities. Divided into two hemispheres, with each containing four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.
CEREBRAL CORTEX
a type of learning in which a neutral ( conditioned) stimulus (CS) is repeatedly paired with a unconditioned stimulus (US) so that the neutral stimulus alone eventually elicits the response that is naturally produced by the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov's original studies, the meat powder was the unconditional stimulus and eight tone was the conditioned stimulus. As the result of pairing the tone with the meat powder, the tone eventually elicited salivation.
CLASSIC CONDITIONING
the gradual elimination of a classically conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditional stimulus.
CLASSICAL EXTINCTION
proposes that children initially learn aggressive behaviors from their parents who rarely reinforce prosocial behaviors, use harsh discipline, reward their children's aggressive tests with approval and attention and that, over time, aggressive parent – child interactions escalate. Patterson and colleagues developed a parent intervention designed to stop this coercive cycle by teaching parents child management skills and providing them with therapy to help them cope more effectively with stress.
COERCIVE FAMILY INTERACTION MODEL
Festinger's theory of attitude change that proposes that inconsistencies in cognitions produce discomfort ( dissonance), which motivates the individual to reduce the dissonance, often by changing his cognitions.
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY
Emphasize the inner psychological aspects of learning (e.g., processing of information, development of problem – solving strategies).
COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES
a nonplace community in which people are united by common interest, values, and commitments or brought together based on their shared ethnicity, race, religion, sexual orientation, social class, ideology, lifestyle, profession, or workplace.
COMMUNITY OF IDENTIFICATION AND INTEREST
third stage in Piaget's model of cognitive development ( age 7 to 11 years). During this stage, children acquire logical operations and use logic to reason about concrete evidence or situations. Children at this stage can "conserve."
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
in classical conditioning, a response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus (CS) as a result of pairing the conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. The conditioned response is similar to, but not identical to, the unconditional response ( it is usually weaker and strength or magnitude).
CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR)
in classical conditioning, the previously neutral stimulus that, as the result of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, now elicits a conditioned response (CS).
CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS)
a change in behavior or attitude as the result of indirect pressure.
CONFORMITY
conformity to group norms is highest when the task is ambiguous or complex, when group consensus is high, and when members have participated in setting the norms. People high in authoritarianism and rigidity and who have low self esteem are more likely to conform to group norms.
CONFORMITY TO GROUP NORMS
the ability to recognize that certain properties of an object or substance do not change when it's appearance is altered in a superficial way; for example, when a liquid is poured from a short, fat class into a tall, thin one, the ability to recognize that the amount of liquid has not changed. The ability to conserve develops gradually during the concrete operational stage and is due to the emergence of decentration and reversibility.
CONSERVATION
research by Harlow with rhesus monkeys indicated that ABB's attachment to his mother is due, in part, to contact comfort, or the pleasant tactile sensation that is provided by a soft, cuddly parent.
CONTACT COMFORT
proposes that prejudice may be reduced through contact between members of the majority and minority groups as long as certain conditions are met; for example, members of the different groups have equal status and power and are provided with opportunities that disconfirm their negative stereotypes about members of the other group.
CONTACT HYPOTHESIS
in operant conditioning, providing reinforcement after each emission of the target response. Associated with rapid acquisition of a response in susceptibility to extinction.
CONTINUOUS SCHEDULE
according to Kohlberg, the stage of moral development in which moral judgments are based adherence to authority. includes the "good boy/good girl" and "law and order" stages. is characteristic of most adolescents and adults.
CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
a "critical period" is a time during which an organism is especially susceptible to positive and negative environmental influences. A "sensitive period" is more flexible than a critical period and is not limited to a specific chronological age. Some aspects of human development may depend on critical periods, but, for many human characteristics and behaviors, sensitive periods are probably more applicable.
CRITICAL VERSUS SENSITIVE PERIOD
two types of general intelligence described by Horn and Cattail." Crystallized intelligence" refers to acquire knowledge and skills and is affected by educational and cultural experiences, whereas" fluid intelligence" enables an individual to solve novel problems and to perceive relations and similarities and does not depend on specific instruction.
CRYSTALLIZED AND FLUID INTELLIGENCE
a three – stage cycle of violence that describes most abusive spousal/partner relationships. Includes tension building, acute battering incident, and loving – contrition, or " honeymoon."
CYCLE OF VIOLENCE (WALKER)
a state of relative anonymity that allows group members to feel unidentifiable. Deindividuation has been associated with increases in antisocial behaviors, apparently because the de-individuated person's behavior is no longer controlled by guilt, fear of the evaluation, or other inhibitory controls.
DEINDIVIDUATION
a disorder involving a build up of glucose in the blood as a result of hypoinsulinism, forms of diabetes include type I, type II and gestational." Type I diabetes" is an autoimmune disorder. If symptoms develop quickly and may include increased thirst and urination, constant hunger, weight loss, blurred vision, extreme fatigue, apathy, confusion, and mental dullness. In" type II diabetes," symptoms develop gradually and may include fatigue, nausea, frequent urination, increased thirst, weight loss, blurred vision, frequent infections, slow healing of wounds, and cognitive symptoms similar to those occurring in type I. Type I diabetes occurs most often in children and young adults. Type II diabetes is associated with obesity, family history of diabetes, history of gestational diabetes, low levels of physical activity, and older age. Due to increased rates of obesity among young people, however, type I diabetes is becoming more common among children, adolescents, and young adults.
DIABETES MELLITUS
a model of certain mental disorders that attributes them to a combination of genetic pre-disposition and environmental stress factors.
DIATHESIS-STRESS MODEL
the deterioration in the relationships between children and their parents following divorce. Following divorce, mothers and fathers spend less time with their children, are less sensitive to their children, have trouble separating their own needs from the needs of the children, and are often inconsistent, but more restrictive and demanding, in terms of control and punishment.
DIMINISHED CAPACITY TO PARENT (WALLERSTEIN)
" power – assertive" discipline ( punishment) includes physical punishment, threat to punish, and physical efforts to control a child's behavior. It tends to increase children's aggressive tendencies." Love withdrawal" involves withdrawing love when a child's behavior is considered inappropriate. Children of parents who apply this strategy tend to be excessively anxious and to have difficulty expressing their emotions." Induction" involves using explanation and rationality to influence a child's behaviors and provides them with opportunities to learn how to exercise self-control and develop internal moral standards. Compared to children who are punished, these children tend to be more thoughtful and generous towards others.
DISCIPLINARY STRATEGIES
proposal that schizophrenia is due to overactivity or oversensitivity at dopamine receptors
DOPAMINE HYPOTHESIS
and autosomal disorder usually caused by the presence of an extra chromosome 21 and characterized by mental retardation, retarded physical growth and motor development, distinctive physical features, and increased susceptibility to Alzheimer's dementia, leukemia, and heart defects.
DOWN SYNDRONE
framework combining systems theory and ecological concepts that advocates a transactional view of the person – environment relationship. The transactional view suggest that a person and his environment are engaged in constant circular exchanges in which each is reciprocally shaping and influencing the other over time. Transactions between a person's coping patterns and the qualities of his environment constant to a person – situation duality. In social work, the objective is to help people find ways of meeting their needs ( of achieving an adaptive person – environment fit) by connecting them to needed resources and by improving their capacity to use resources and cope with negative environmental influences.
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE
framework combining system theory and ecological concepts that advocates a transactional view of the person – environment relationship. The transactional view suggests that a person and his environment are engaged in constant circular exchanges in which each is reciprocally shaping and influencing the other over time. Transactions between a person's coping patterns and the qualities of his environment constitute a person – situation duality. In social work, the objective is to help people find ways of meeting their needs ( of achieving an adaptive person – environment fit) by connecting them to needed resources and by improving their capability to use resources and cope with negative environmental influences.
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE
concept pertaining to the physical and biological environments and the interaction of all components." Ecosystems theory" is used to describe and analyze people and other living systems and their transactions.
ECOSYSTEM
the effects of divorce are moderated by several factors including the child's age and gender and the custody arrangements. Preschool children exhibit the most problems immediately after the divorce, but long – term consequences may be worse for children who were in elementary school at the time of the divorce. Voice exhibit more problems than girls initially, but there may be a" sleeper effect" for girls who may develop symptoms and adolescents. Overall, children do best when they reside with the same – six parent. Negative consequences are reduced when the conflict between parents is minimized.
EFFECTS OF DIVORCE ON CHILDREN
several aspects of memory show age – related declines, especially recent one – term ( secondary) memory. Deficits in secondary memory are believed to be due primarily to a reduced spontaneous use of encoding strategies.
EFFECTS OF INCREASING AGE OF MEMORY
research investigating the effects of maternal employment has found to be associated with greater personal satisfaction for the working mother ( especially when she wants to work) and, in terms of the children, with fewer six – role stereotypes and greater independence. For lower –SES voice, maternal employment is associated with better performance on measures of cognitive development; BUT FOR UPPER –SES voice, it may result in lower scores on IQ and achievement test.
EFFECTS OF MATERNAL EMPLOYMENT
according to Freud, the aspect of the psyche associated with rational, realistic thought. It is that Eagles tasks to resolve conflicts between the id, the superego, and reality.
EGO
according to Piaget, the tendency toward biological and psychological balance. Equilibration underlies cognitive development.
EQUILIBRATION
a theory of motivation that predicts the motivation ( e.g., motivation to remain in a relationship) is affected by the comparison of input/outcome ratios.
EQUITY THEORY
occurs when a baby's weight falls below the 5th percentile for his age. In" organic failure to thrive," there is a underlying medical condition that causes the slow the rate of growth. In" nonorganic failure to thrive," no medical cause can be found. Risk factors for nonorganic failure to thrive in include maternal childhood deprivation, the infants temperament ( i.e., is difficult to feed), and certain family characteristics such as high levels of stress, parents who do not understand the babies nutritional needs, and poverty.
FAILURE TO THRIVE
the tendency to overestimate the degree to which we believe others think and act like us.
FALSE CONSENSUS BIAS
proposes that families passed through expected stages that are demarcated by entrances and exits of family members and the shifts and roll function that these changes in membership require – i.e., between families ( unattached young adult), joining families to marriage ( newly married couple), the family with young children, the family with adolescents, launching children and moving on, and the family in later life. Factors such as traumatic entrance and a rigid, dysfunctional family structure can make it difficult for a family to accomplish his developmental task and increase the likelihood that normal developmental change will be experienced as a crisis.
FAMILY LIFE CYCLE THEORY
exposure to alcohol during prenatal development may produce a variety of physical, behavioral, and cognitive symptoms depending on the amount consumed by the pregnant woman. The symptoms of FAS are largely reversible and include facial deformities, hyperactivity, and mental retardation.
FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME (FAS)
an intermittent reinforcement schedule in which the subject is reinforced for each predetermined interval of time in which he makes at least one response. Associated with a" scallop" on the cumulative recording of the subject's responses.
FI (FIXED INTERVAL) SCHEDULE
Lewin's theory of human behavior describes it as a product of inter dependent factors in the person and his physical and social environment.
FIELD THEORY
final stage in Piaget's model of cognitive development; begins around age 11 or 12. People at this stage are aware of their own thought processes and can think more systematically about abstract and hypothetical concepts and ideas.
FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
in classical conditioning, presentation of the conditioned stimulus (CS) prior to ( or simultaneously with) the unconditioned stimulus (US). Of the methods of forward conditioning, delay condition is most effective in producing a conditioned response. In delay conditioning, the conditioned stimulus proceeds and overlaps the unconditioned stimulus.
FORWARD CONDITIONING
an intermittent reinforcement schedule in which the subject is reinforced following a predetermined number of responses ( e.g., after each 10th response). the cumulative record exhibits" post – reinforcement pauses," especially as the number of responses required for reinforcement increases.
FR (FIXED RATIO) SCHEDULE
a community defined in terms of a purpose, function, or problem that needs to be addressed. Social workers, for example, along to the" welfare or human services functional community."
FUNCTIONAL COMMUNITY
the attribution error and which an observer tends to overestimate dispositional (internal) causes an underestimate situational ( external) causes when making attributions about another person's behavior.
FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION BIAS
a theory of attraction proposing that liking is related to the pattern rather than the amount of rewards. The theory suggests that people tend to be most attracted to individuals who show increased liking for them and to be the least attractive to individuals who showed decreased liking to them.
GAIN-LOSS THEORY
the research on gay and lesbian parenting suggests that the nature of the parent – child relationship is more important than a parent's sexual orientation: overall, children of gay and lesbian parents are similar to children of heterosexual parents in terms of social reaction, psychological adjustment, gender identity development, and sexual orientation.
GAY AND LESBIAN PARENTS
"Gemeinschafrt" refers to community. It focuses on intimacy and relationship and emphasizes the mutual, common, and intimate bonds that bring people together in local units. The group is valued, whether or not its members are creating a product or achieving a goal. Examples include the domestic unit, neighborhood, and groups of friends. "Gesellschaft" refers to society or associations ( e.g.the city or state). That represents a formalized common task – oriented relationships in which people organize to achieve a purpose, goal, or task. People may benefit personally from these relationships, but their purpose is to create a product, achieve a goal, or complete a task.
GEMEINSCHAFRT AND GESELLSCHAFT
according to Kohlberg's cognitive – development theory, gender – role development involves a sequence of stages that parallels cognitive development: by age 2 or three, children acquire a gender identity ( i.e., they recognize that they are either male or female). Soon thereafter, children realize that gender identity is stable over time ( gender stability). By age 6 or seven, children understand that gender is constant over situations and know that people cannot change gender by superficially altering their external appearance or behavior ( gender consistency).
GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
according to Selye, the human response to stress is mediated by adrenal – pituitary secretions ( e.g., cortisol) and involves three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion. The model predicts that prolonged stress can result in illness or death.
GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME
" genotype" refers to a person's genetic makeup;" phenotype" refers to observable characteristics, the charred due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors.
GENOTYPE VERSUS PHENOTYPE
proposes that behavioral and adjustment outcomes are best for children and parents' caregiving behaviors match the child's temperament.
GOODNESS-OF-FIT MODEL (THOMAS AND CHESS)
the feeling of solidarity among group members. Cohesiveness is high and smaller groups; when initiation or entry into the group is difficult; when members are relatively homogeneous; and when there is an external threat.
GROUP COHESION
the tendency of groups to make more extreme decisions ( either more conservative or more risky) then individual members would have made alone. the tendency to make decisions in the risky direction only it is referred to as the" risky shift phenomenon".
GROUP POLARIZATION AND RISKY SHIFT PHENOMENON
mode of group thinking in which group members' desires for unanimity and cohesiveness override their ability to realistically appraise or determine alternative courses of action. Can be alleviated by encouraging dissent, having someone play devil's advocate, and refraining from reaching a decision or solution to quickly.
GROUPTHINK
compensatory preschool program for economically disadvantaged students. Head start and similar programs tend to have positive effects on measures of reading, language, and math achievement and attitude toward achievement and are associated with lower rates of placement in special education classes and lower high – school dropout rates.
HEAD START
a linkage of individuals, groups, families, organizations, government offices, social agencies, etc., Who work together or alone to provide a person with the resources, information, and supports the needs to fulfill a need or resolve a problem. Unlike social networks, helping networks are linked only by that help the give.
HELPING NETWORK
although the left and right hemispheres of the brain are both involved to some degree and most functions, they tend to specialize. The left ( dominant) Hemisphere dominates in verbal activities ( e.g., spontaneous speaking and writing, memory for words in numbers); analytical, logical thought; and positive emotion states. The right( nondominant) Hemisphere dominates and visual – spatial activities such as facial recognition, spatial interpretation, and memory for shapes and in negative emotions.
HEMISPHERIC SPECIALIZATION
Piaget distinguished between two stages of moral development. The stage of" heteronomous morality" ( morality of constraint) extends from about age 7 through age 10. During this stage, children believe that rules are set by authority figures and are unalterable. when judging whether an act is" right" or" wrong," they consider whether a rule has been violated and what the consequences of the act are. beginning at about age 11, children enter the stage of" autonomous morality" ( morality of cooperation). Children in this stage view rules as being arbitrary and alterable when the people who are governed by them agree to change them. When judging an act, they focus more on the intention of the actor then on they act's consequences
HETERONONOUS VERSUS AUTONOMOUS
in classical conditioning, a situation in which a previously established conditioned stimulus (CS) is used as an unconditioned stimulus (US) to establish a conditioned response with a new condition (neutral) stimulus.
HIGHER-ORDER CONDITIONING
consists of linkages between and among organizations in neighborhoods that are located within the same geographic region and, usually, serve the community.
HORIZONTAL COMMUNITY
a term used by Spitz to describe the syndrome found in infants who have been separated from their mothers or other primary caregiver. Symptoms include listlessness, unresponsiveness, indifference, and retarded growth.
HOSPITALISM
the concept that variations in the environment can affect a person's cognitive and social functioning, personality, and physical and mental health, independent of his genetic endowment. Describes one way that the environment can influence development over the life span.
HUMAN PLASTICITY
an inherited degenerative disease that is transmitted by a single dominant gene and involves emotional, cognitive, and motor symptoms
HUNTINGTON'S DISEASE
" primary (essential) hypertension" is diagnosed when high blood pressure is not due to a known physiological cause, while" secondary hypertension" is diagnosed when elevated blood pressure is related to a known disease. Primary hypertension accounts for about 85 to 90% of all cases of high blood pressure; untreated, it can lead to cardiovascular disease, and it is a major cause of heart failure, kidney failure, and stroke. High risk is associated with gender (males), obesity, cigarette smoking, excessive use of salt, and genetics (e.g., African-American heritage).
HYPERTENSION
" hyperthyroidism" is caused by hypersecretion of thyroxine by the thyroid gland and is characterized by a speeded – up metabolism, elevated blood temperature, accelerated heart rate, increased appetite with weight loss, nervousness, and insomnia." Hypothyroidism" is caused by hyposecretion of thyroxine and involves a slowed metabolism, slowed heart rate, lethargy, lowered body temperature, impaired concentration and memory, and depression.
HYPERTHYROIDISM AND HYPOTHROIDISM
according to Freud, the aspect of the psyche that is present at birth, contains the libido and other instincts, and seeks immediate gratification of its impulses.
ID
Marcia proposes that the achievement of an identity (including values, beliefs, and goals) involves four stages that take place primarily during adolescence and young adulthood: i.e., diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement.
IDENTITY STATUSES (MARCIA)
gifts tries in the US control over the adoption of Native American children. Adoptions involving Native American children require a release from the birth parents and the tried, and the tribe may veto the adoption of a Native American baby by a non-Native American family (even if the birth family has agreed to the adoption) and place a child with a Native American family.
INDIAN CHILD WELFARE ACT
the apparent sudden understanding ("aha" experience) of the relationship between elements in a problem-solving situation.Gestalt psychologist believed that insight involves perception reorganization.
INSIGHT LEARNING (KOHLER)
in operant conditioning, and a pattern of reinforcement that is not continuous. Includes fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio schedules. Associated with greater resistance to extinction than a continuous schedule.
INTERMITTENT (PARTIAL) REINFORCEMENT
the denial or restriction of material conditions (e.g., access to healthcare) and access to power to members of minority groups
INSTITUTIONAL RACISM
social services provided by major public service systems that administer benefits such as financial assistance, housing programs, health care, or education.
INSTITUTIONAL SOCIAL SERVICES
indicators of high integration in a community include strong community associations and groups; capable and adequate leadership; diverse recreational opportunities; cohesive informal social networks; high income level and stable incomes; acknowledgment and resolution of differences between cultures; and an emphasis on religious and spiritual values. A well integrated community is associated with a low rate of mental disorders.
INTEGRATED COMMUNITIES
according to Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory, moral development coincides with changes in logical reasoning and social perspective taking and involves three levels that each include two stages: preconventional (punishment and obedience; instrumental hedonism); conventional (good boy/girl; law and order); and postconventional (morality of contact, individual rights, and democratically accepted laws; morality of individual vegetables of conscience).
KOHLBERG'S LEVELS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
proposes that learning can take place without reinforcement or actual performance improvement. Tolman's research showed that rats formed" cognitive maps" of mazes even without being reinforced for doing so.
LATENT LEARNING (TOLMAN)
Kubler – Ross developed a five stage model of adjustment to the idea of one's own death: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.
Kubler – Ross
proposes that learning can take place without reinforcement or actual performance improvement. Tolman's research showed that rats form" cognitive maps" of mazes even without being reinforced for doing so.
latent learning (Tolman)
the principle that organisms tend to acquire behaviors that lead to satisfying consequences quicker than behaviors that lead to unsatisfying consequences.
law of effect (Thorndike)
the feeling that one has no control over one's outcomes or events in the environment; often results when one experience an actual loss of control.
learned helplessness
they construct developed by Rotter to describe the extent to which an individual believes that life events are under his own control (" internal locus of control") or under the control of external forces (" external locus of control").
locus of control
children of depressed mothers are at higher risk of a motional and behavioral problems, although the exact nature of severity of the problems depend on several factors including genetic predisposition and the quality of early mother – child interactions.
maternal depression
federal response to homelessness, which called for the establishment of program providing specific services to homeless individuals to help them regain their independence; e.g., an emergency shelter, transitional and permanent housing, job training, primary health care, education.
McKinney act
the recurrent vascular headache characterized by severe throbbing pain, usually on one side of the head. Triggers include certain foods, alcohol, bright lights, and relaxation following physical or psychological stress. A migraine may be preceded by an aura (classic migraine) or gastrointestinal or other symptoms (common migraine).
migraine headache
refers to Schachter's finding that highly anxious individuals prefer to affiliate (wait with other individuals) with other highly anxious people.
misery loves miserable company
flexible, informal, and voluntary relationships that develop among nonprofessionals who offer vital services and support to people in need. For example, this type of network often includes the needy persons friends and family, neighbors, fellow employees and church members,altruistic community members, etc.
natural helping network
physical, psychological, economic, cultural, and social requirements for survival, fulfillment, and well-being. There are several types of needs:" normative needs" include what a person needs in order to attain a level of well-being that meets the standards of his community our culture." Proceed needs" include what individuals believe they must have to achieve an acceptable level of well-being." Expressed needs" described a number of people who perceive themselves to have the need." Relative needs" describe what people need in order to attain an acceptable level of well-being, as compared to the resources available to people to meet these needs.
needs
in operant conditioning, the withdrawal of a stimulus contingent on the performance of a behavior in order to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will occur again.
negative punishment
in operant conditioning, the withdrawal of a stimulus following a behavior in order to increase the likelihood that the behavior will occur again.
negative reinforcement
the nurse cell specialized for the conduction of electrochemical signals that carry information from one part of the body to another (e.g., from the brain to the muscles, from the sensory organs to the brain). Is made up dendrites, the soma (cell body), and an axon.
neuron
chemical substances that are released from axon terminals, diffuse across synapses, and excite or inhibit receptor sites on postsynaptic nerve cells."Acetylcholine" mediates neuromuscular transmission, parasympathetic arousal, and memory (e.g., memory loss in Alzheimer's dementia)."Norepinephrine" mediates the activities of the sympathetic nervous system and plays a role in the regulation of eating, sleep and positive reinforcement. A deficiency is associated with some forms of depression." Dopamine" is involved in inhibitory motor regulation and motivational/emotional functions. Insufficient dopamine in the basal ganglia is believed to underlie Parkinson's disease; excessive activity at dopamine receptors has been linked to schizophrenia and Tourette's syndrome." Serotonin" ordinarily inhibits behavior and is involved in the regulation of mood, hunger, arousal, sleep, temperature, and pain and in the mood disorders, schizophrenia, and OCD." GABA" is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter and is believed to be involved in anxiety, sleep, and seizures. Low levels of GABA in the motor region are associated with Huntington's disease.
neurotransmitters
reflexes are unlearned responses to particular stimuli in the environment. Early reflexes include the Babinski reflects (toes fan out and upward when souls of the feed are tickled) and the Moro reflex (flings arm and legs outward and then towards the body in response to a loud noise or sudden loss of physical support).
newborn reflexes
a social agency operated to achieve a service provision goal, rather than to make a financial profit for its owners.
nonprofit private agency
the standard rules of conduct use by groups to maintain uniformity of behavior among group members. Norms may be formal (codified or written) or informal (unwritten but "understood" by group members).norms do not govern all aspects of behavior, only those considered by the group to be important for effective group functioning. In addition, norms usually applied to behavior, not too personal feelings and thoughts.
norms
the understanding that objects continue to exist when they are no longer detectable by the senses (e.g., when they are out of sight). Object permanence emerges at the and of Piaget's sensorimotor stage of development.
object permanence
Bandura's theory that behaviors can be acquired simply by observing someone else (a model) perform those behaviors; i.e., that the acquisition of behavior is due largely to social influences and that learning is cognitively mediated and involves four processes: attention, retention, production, and motivation.
observational (social) learning
a type of learning in which behaviors are increased or decreased as a result of the consequences (reinforcements or punishments) that follow them.
operate conditioning
in operant conditioning, the gradual elimination of a previously reinforced response through the consistent withholding of reinforcement following that response. Usually associated with a temporary increase in the response (" extinction burst").
operant extinction
the act of putting extreme limitations and constraints on a particular person, group, or large system. Oh pressure and (and discrimination) can result from stereotypes, which are six mental pictures of a particular group based on attributes that reflect an overly simplified view of that group, without consideration or acknowledgment of individual differences.
oppression
a public relations approach in which efforts are made to bring an agency services and information about its services to people in their homes are other natural environments. Avenues used to achieve outreach include case finding, public speaking, interagency collaboration, and written material.
outreach
the notion that when individuals are externally rewarded for a task they previously found intrinsically interesting, their interest in the task will decrease.
overjustification hypothesis
the division of the autonomic nervous system involved in the conservation of energy and relaxation. Activation of the parasympathetic division is associated with a slowing of heart rate, lowered blood pressure, contraction of pupils, reduction of sweat gland output, and increased activity of the digestive system.
parasympathetic division
Baumrind distinguishes between four styles that reflect various combinations of responsivity and demandingness: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and rejecting – neglecting. By parental responsivity mixed with moderate control (an " authoritative style") is associated with the best outcomes including greater self-confidence and self-reliance, achievement orientation, and social responsibility.
parenting style (Baumrind)
progressive degenerative disease characterized by Trevor, muscular rigidity, akathisia (" cruel recklessness"), slowed movement, and speech difficulties; may eventually include dementia.
Parkinson's disease
a technique based on observational learning theory in which a model demonstrates the desired behavior and then helps the individual to gradually imitate the model behavior.
participant modeling
research using Ainsworth's " strange situation" revealed for patterns of attachment: secure, insecure/ambivalent, insecure/avoidant, and disorganized/disoriented. Each is associated with different caregiver behaviors and different personality and behavioral outcomes.
patterns of attachment (Ainsworth)
the nervous system elements lying outside of the spinal cord and brain. The PNS consists of the spinal and cranial nerves and is divided into the somatic autonomic nervous systems.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Child welfare strategy used to provide alternatives to temporary foster care placement through organized efforts to provide long-term continuity in the care of dependent children.
permanency planning
social services that address individualized needs involving interpersonal relationships and the ability to function within one's immediate environment.
personal social services
a disorder caused by a pair of recessive genes that causes mental retardation unless the infant is placed on a special diet very soon after birth.
Phenylktonuria (PKU)
proposes that knowledge is actively constructed by the individual from elements provided by both maturation and experience. According to Piaget, cognitive development involves for universal and invariant stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development
this law has been renamed the individuals with disabilities education act (IDEA). P. L. 94 – 142 requires the following: all disabled people from New Jersey to age 21 years must be evaluated by a team of specialist to determine their specific needs; an individualized educational plan (IEP) must be developed for each disabled child enrolled in the public education system; and the IEP must provide education for the student in the quotation mark least restrictive environment" and be approved by the child's parents. Additionally, while reliable, valid, and nondiscriminatory psychological tests can be used, assigned to special education classes cannot be made on the basis of IQ test only.
P. L. 94 – 142 (education for all handicapped children act)
in operant conditioning, the application of a stimulus following a response with the goal of reducing or eliminating the response.
positive punishment
in operant conditioning, the application of a stimulus following a response with the goal of increasing the occurrence or strength of the response.
positive reinforcement
for Kohlberg, the final level of moral development. At this level, moral judgments are independent of personal consequences and social convention and are based on social contracts, democratically determine laws, and universal principles. Many adults do not reach the stage of moral development.
postconventional morality
sad feelings experienced by some women after having a baby, often as a result of fatigue or changing hormone levels. These feelings usually reinvent within a few days or weeks. Other women display clinical symptoms of depression that last for months. The DSM classifies this as" major depressive episode with postpartum onset " when the symptoms had an onset within four weeks of delivery and include extreme and labile moods, feelings of guilt, inadequacy, and worthlessness, irritability,fatigue, sleep and appetite disturbances, anxiety and panic, disinterest in the baby,and/or fears of harming oneself or the baby.
postpartum depression
according to Kohlberg, the first level of moral development in which judgments of right and wrong are based on consequences and personal needs. Includes the punishment – obedience and instrumental hedonism stages. Characteristic of childhood.
preconventional morality
infants born before 37 weeks are considered premature. Risk factors for prematurity include low SES, teen mothers, malnutrition, and drug use. Potential complications for the newborn premature infant include respiratory distress syndrome, apnea, inability to nurse our drink from a bottle due to a undeveloped sucking reflex, and jaundice. In the absence of significant abnormalities and with appropriate medical attention and a supportive environment, most premature infants catch up to their non-premature peers in terms of cognitive, language, and social skills by two or three years of age.
prematurity
second stage in Piaget's model of cognitive development (age 2 to 7 years). Children at this age can't think symbolically but haven't mastered logical operations (e.g., mental addition, classification, conversation).
preoperational stage
a stimulus that has reinforcing value without conditioning (learning). Examples include food and water.
primary (unconditioned) reinforcer
a social agency that is privately owned and is operated by people who are not employed by a government. A Board of Directors has ultimate responsibility for a private agencies programmatic and financial operations.
Pvt. (voluntary) agency
a social agency that provides designated social services that often are similar to those provided by nonprofit private social agencies, but one of its major purposes is to make a financial profit for its owners.
proprietary (for-profit) agency
the delivery of social services for profit, typically by self-employed professionals in nonclinical settings. The term" Pvt. practice" has a similar meaning, but usually refers to clinical practice; i.e., social workers in private practice assume responsibility the services they provide in exchange for direct payment or third-party reimbursement.
proprietary practice
intervention on behalf of individuals who are or may be in danger of harm from others are who are unable to care for themselves (e.g., children, the elderly, the handicapped). Main activities include investigating situations in which a person is alleged to be at risk, minimizing further risk, improving current conditions, accessing resources, and facilitating placement in alternative environments when necessary.
protective services
the tendency to resist being influenced or manipulated by others, usually by doing the also what is desired or expected.
psychological reactance
Freud's theory of personality development, which proposes that development involves five invariant stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital), in which the libido shifts from one area of the body to another.
psychosexual development
Erikson's theory of personality development, which proposes that an individual faces different social crises at different points throughout the lifespan. These are; trust versus mistrust, but Tom and me versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and integrity versus despair.
psychosocial development
an agency established by legislation adopted by elected officials at the federal, state, county, or city level; funded by tax dollars; run by a unit of government; and generally regulated by laws that directly affect policy.
public agency
a financial arrangement between two or more socialist agencies or between an agency and a government organization. When the agreement is between a private agency and a public (governmental) agency, the private agency is paid to provide particular services (i.e., is funded, in part, by tax dollars); the government retains control over financing and decision-making functions, but the delivery of services is moved to the private sector.
purchase of service (POS) contract
proposes that, in early adolescence, girls experience a relational crisis due to pressures to conform to cultural stereotypes of femininity. As a result I, they become disconnected from themselves (e.g., experience a quotation mark loss of voice").
relational crisis (Gilligan)
longitudinal research by Werner and Smith suggests that exposure to early (prenatal and perinatal) stress may be ameliorated when the baby experiences fewer stressors following birth, exhibits good communication skills and social responsiveness, and receive stable support from a parent or other caregiver.
resilience (Werner and Smith)
the behavior expected of an individual based on his position or status. Individuals usually adopt more than one role; e.g., mother/father, daughter/son, and worker.
role type
Rutter argues that the greater the number of risk factors a baby is exposed to, the greater the risk for negative outcomes. He concludes that the following six family risk factors are particularly accurate predictors of child psychopathology; severe marital discord, low social economical status, overcrowding or large family size, rental criminality, maternal psychopathology, and the placement of a child outside the home.
rutter's indicators
a condition of being satisfied or gratified with regard to a particular reinforcer. Satiation is particularly a problem with continuous reinforcement and with the use of primary reinforcers.
Satiation
intense anxiety about going to school or being in school, usually accomplished by a stomach ache, headache, nausea, and other physical symptoms.
school phobia/school refusal
social work aimed at helping students adjust to school. Involves coordinating community, school, and family efforts on behalf of students, and may include working on problems in such as truancy, acting out, the consequences of emotional, physical, and financial problems, etc.
school social worker
reinforcers that are not inherently reinforcing but that acquire their reinforcing value through association with a primary reinforcer; e.g., tokens are reinforcing only because they can be exchanged for primary reinforcers.
secondary (conditioned) reinforcer
the need for an ability to manage the impression that others form of us. By self monitors are most concerned about their" public self" and, consequently, strive to match their attitudes and behaviors to this situation. Low self monitors are guided primarily by their own beliefs and values and attempt to alter the situation to match their "private self."
self monitoring
proposes that individuals make attributions about their own attitudes and behaviors on the basis of observations of their own behaviors and other external cues.
self perception theory
the casual attributions, the tendency to attribute one successes to internal factors in one's failures to external factors.
self serving bias
predicts that people prefer acrid information from others – i.e., information consistent with their own self-evaluation.
self verification theory
first stage in Piaget's model of cognitive development (the first two years of life). During this stage, knowledge is acquired through the senses and motor behaviors. The end of this stage is marked by the emergence of symbolic thought and object permanence.
sensorimotor stage
a normal fear response exhibited by a young child when he is separated from a mother or other primary caregiver. Begins at about 6 to 8 months, increases in intensity at about 14 to 18 months, and thereafter declines.
separation anxiety
an organization or facility that deliver social services under the auspices of a Board of Directors and provides a range of social services for members of a population group that has, or is honorable to, as specified social problem.
social agency
proposes that individuals use other people as sources of comparison in order to evaluate their own attitudes and behaviors.
social comparison theory
consists of individuals or groups linked by a common bond, shared social status, similar our shared functions, or geographic or cultural connection." formal social networks" includes groups of formal organizations that address a common problem." Informal social networks" include community members who exchange money, emotional support, and other resources with one another. When effective, informal social networks make it unnecessary for individuals to turn to institutionalized services offered by social agencies.
social networks
laws and regulations established by a government that determine which social programs exist, what categories of clients are served, and who qualifies for a program. Social policy also sets standards regarding the type of services to be provided, the qualifications of service provider, etc., rules for how money can be spent to help people and how these people will be treated.
social policy
exists when a child lacks some or all of the basic materials, social, and psychological necessities of life – e.g., food, water, shelter, love and affection, medical care, educational simulation, and positive social interactions. Children (and adults) who lack some or all of these necessities are at risk for impaired development and other deficiencies. Two key sources of socialcultural risk are" social impoverishment" (lack of critical social resources in a child's life) and" cultural impoverishment" (values that undermine a child's healthy development).
sociocultural risk
consists of sensory nerves that carry information from the body sense receptors to the CSN and motor nerves that carry information from the CSN to the skeletal muscles. Governance activities that are ordinarily considered voluntary.
somatic nervous system
people in a community with a particular interest in what happens with a social agency or program; they may be for or against this service or program. For a typical social service, there are usually three kinds of stakeholders: patrons (those who provide support and/or legitimacy for the service or program); agents and the social services agency (those who carry out the patrons wishes and provide the services); and clients (those who receive the services).
stakeholders
girls, especially those in the middle school years, seem to have more trouble than boys in accepting a stepfather, while the addition of a stepfather may have benefits for preadolescent boys. Over time, these boys often develop close relationships with their stepfather's and become fairly indistinguishable from boys and non-divorced families in terms of behavioral problems. The best general conclusion that can be drawn about stepfathers is that they are less authoritative and more disengaged and biological fathers.
stepparents
the process by which a behavior does or does not occur due to the presence (or absence) of discriminative stimuli.
stimulus control
learning to respond only in the presence of certain stimuli (i.e., in the presence of the original conditioned stimulus).
stimulus discrimination
in operant and classical conditioning responding with a particular response to similar stimuli; e.g., in classical conditioning, responding to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response.
stimulus generalization
the unexpected death of an infant for which no physical cause can be found. Though the cause of SIDS is unknown, SIDS or curves more often in low birth weight infants, premature infants, infants with low Apgar scores, if into sleep on their stomachs, infants with a sibling who previously died of SIDS, and Mel infants. Maternal risk factors include young age, low SES, smoking, drug abuse during pregnancy, closely spaced pregnancies, and inadequate prenatal care.
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
according to Freud, the aspect of the psyche that represents an internalization of societal standards, values, etc. And that serves as an individual's conscience.
super ego
goals that can be achieved only when individuals are members of the different groups work together cooperatively. These have been found useful in reducing intergroup conflict.
superordinate goals
a theory about current, less blatant forms of racism that reflect a combination of anti-African American attitudes, strong support for traditional American values (e.g., the work ethic), and a belief that African-Americans violate those values.
symbolic (modern) racism
the ability to use words, actions, and other symbols to represent objects and experiences. Emerges at the end of Piaget's sensorimotor stage of development. Also referred to as" symbolic capacity"
symbolic (representational) thought
the division of the autonomic nervous system involved in the mediation of flight or fight (emergency) reactions. Activation produces increased heart rate, pupil dilation, increased blood sugar, and inhibition of the digestive processes.
sympathetic division
the research indicates that teachers tend to respond differently to boys and girls. Boys generally receive more correction, criticism, praise and help than girls do. However, the nature of the feedback is gender related; e.g., boys are more often criticized for sloppiness and inattention, girls for an adequate intellectual performance. Research on teacher expectations suggest that they have a "self-fulfilling prophecy effect" on the academic performance, motivation, and self-esteem of students.
teacher feedback
substances (e.g., alcohol, nicotine, lead, amphetamines and other drugs, certain medications) that cross the placental barrier and cause defects in the embryo or fetus. The different organs are most susceptible to the effects of teratogens at different times, but, overall, exposure during the embryonic stage is most likely to cause major structural abnormalities.
Teratogens
the practice of placing students into homogeneous groups or classes on the basis of current achievement levels. Research suggests that tracking is associated with negative effects, especially for lower ability children who do better in heterogeneous groups.
tracking
in classical conditioning, the response naturally elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (US) without conditioning.
unconditioned response (UR)
in classical conditioning, the stimulus that naturally elicits the target response (unconditioned response, UR) without conditioning. In Pavlov's original studies, meat powder was the US and salivation was the UR.
unconditioned stimulus (US)
consists of external linkages that connect community units (people, groups, organizations) two units outside the community and provide a way for local communities to reach out to other systems (groups, organizations, other communities). Decisions made by organizations outside the boundaries of a local community may not always be in the best interest of the community.
vertical community
an intermittent reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is applied after a varying amount of time (with the average time interval being predetermined). Associated with a smooth rate of responding.
VI (variable interval) schedule
an intermittent reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is applied after a varying number of responses (both the average number of responses being predetermined). Associated with a high, stable rate of responding and the greater resistance to extinction.
VR (variable ratio) schedule
proposes that cognitive development is always first interpersonal (when the child interacts with an adult or other teacher) and then interpersonal (when the child internalizes what he has learned). Additionally, cognitive development is fostered when instruction targets the" zone of proximal development," which is defined by what a child can currently do alone and what he can accomplish with assistance from a parent, teacher, or more experience peer.
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory