Language Change

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Old English (5th-11th Centuries)

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The development of English from the linguistic influence of Germanic & Viking invaders.

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Middle English (11th to 14th centuries)

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The mixing of French with English after the Norman Conquest.

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Early Modern English (15-17th Centuries)

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The continual process of change, as English discarded older forms of word order and word endings and added Latin words for new concepts and ideas.

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Late Modern English (18th Century to the Present Century)

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The age of standardised English.

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AO1

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Select and apply a range of linguistic methods (cover all of the frameworks) and ensure that you are supporting all of your points by clustering examples/finding patterns and analysing these. Use linguistic terminology accurately and precisely.

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AO2

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Link your comments to relevant theory as well as language concepts such as gender, power and technology.

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AO3

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Analyse and evaluate the influence of contextual factors, showing your ability to talk about a range of contextual factors, including audience, purpose and genre.

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Diachronic

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The study of history and the evolution of a language.

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Synchronic

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The study of language at a particular point in time.

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Saussure

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He saw change as occurring because of the way that language is continually being rearranged and reinterpreted by people. He saw language as a structured series of signs with meanings: one side of the sign he called the signifier and the meanings and mental associations drawn from it the signified. e.g. 'cat' -> /c/,/a/,/t/ is made from three verbal signifiers, and signifiers of the word would be "furry", "purring", "hunter", etc...

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Reasons why language changes over time

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1. People invent new things and need new words to describe them.

2. People's attitudes change because of changes in society, or they are influenced by others such as politicians or the media.

3. People travel to, move to, trade with or invade other countries.

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Ways that new words are created

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1. We borrow them from other languages, either to fill a gap in our own language or to allow us another word for the same object/idea.

2. We adapt existing words (using morphology) - either a lazy or efficient way to make a new word.

3. We create completely new ones when we don't have anything that will do - probably the least common way.

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Neologism

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The creation of a new word or expression

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Coinage

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The creation of a new word

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New words can be created in various ways

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Borrowing/loan words, eponyms, proprietary names, acronyms, initalisms, clipping, affixation, prefixes, suffixes, conversion, compound, back formation, blend

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Borrowing/Loan word

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The introduction of a word from one language to another; these can be anglicised or remain similar to the original in spelling and pronunciation

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Eponym

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The name of a person after whom something is named after (e.g. Sandwich or Braille)

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Proprietary Names

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The name given to a product by an organisation becomes the commonly used name for the same product (e.g. Hoover or Walkman)

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Acronym

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A lexicalised word made up from the initial letters of a phrase (sounded as a word)

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Initialism

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A word made from initial letters, each being pronounced

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Clipping

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A new word produced by shortening an existing one

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Affixation

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The addition of bound morphemes (e.g. nation -> nation-al or inter-national) to an existing word

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Prefixes

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The addition of a bound morpheme to the beginning of a root word (e.g. mega/uber)

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Suffixes

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The addition of a bound morpheme to the end of a root word (e.g. [radical]ising)

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Conversion

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A word changes its word class without adding a suffix (e.g. text = noun & verb)

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Compound

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The combining of separate words to create a new word, sometimes using a hyphen to link them

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Back Formation

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The removal of an imagined affix from an existing word (e.g. editor -> edit)

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Blend

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Two words fusing to make a new one (e.g. smog [smoke + fog])

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Semantic change can occur:

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1. Gradually, over time, as old meanings become forgotten.

2. In response to a new context for a particular word, for example technology.

3. As current slang where a particular social group takes ownership of an existing word and changes it to suit.

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Amelioration

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A word takes on a different, more positive meaning than it had previously, thereby gaining status.

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Pejoration

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A word takes on a different, more negative meaning than it had previously, so losing status.

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Weakening

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A word loses the strength of its original meaning

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Narrowing

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A word becomes more specific in its meaning

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Broadening

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A word keeps its original meaning but acquires others

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Metaphor

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A word acquires new meanings because it is used metaphorically

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Euphemism

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A way of describing something unpleasant in a more pleasant manner

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Idiom

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A speech form, or an expression, that can't be understood literally from the meanings of the individual parts

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18th Century

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1. Long s - Leftover from Old English, but continued its use into late Modern English. It was replaced as it lacked a phonological function, so the phoneme didn't need a different grapheme

2. Dictionaries

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19th Century

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More consistent and standardised spelling - an increasing availability of dictionaries and a drive for a more literate society + schooling beginning to be offered to all children.

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20th Century

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Standardised spelling rules. Recently, more non-standard forms are extensively used. Emergence of technology, such as text messaging and instant messaging.

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Phonological reasons for orthographical change

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The sounds of English changed, the modern 'silent e' rule evolved from old inflectional endings where sounds were produced to show the word's function, e.g. roote + soote. This was dropped as people became unsure whether to write it as it was no longer sounded

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Technological reasons for orthographical change

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This led to the dropping of the long s, and the choice to use non-standard forms, depending on the medium (e.g. texting), the audience (e.g. friends), the function (interactional), or in advertising to send a specific message about the product (finger lickin' good)

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Standardisation reasons for orthographical change

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During Late Modern English, spelling was further standardised and codified in dictionaries and spelling books. Before this, spelling had been determined by individual choices, rather than by commonly agreed rules

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Punctuation in the Late Modern Period

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1. Commas - used to link long, extended clauses to create sentence complexity

2. Colons & semicolons - to feature separate clauses to create sentence complexity

3. Apostrophes - extended to signify possessives and to represent missing letters

4. Contractions = might be for poetic metre o used as contractions to alter syllable length.

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Punctuation now

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Used mostly only as a prosodic feature, may be used in standard multiple forms (!!!) and at the end of sentences (.), but not in contractions (dont instead of don't), limited capitalising of first words in sentences or for names (meet at james house l8er)

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Capitalisation in Early Modern English

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Used, as now, at the beginning of every sentence and proper name, but also were used rhetorically for personified and abstract nouns - for any words the writer deemed important

-> this capitalisation was a product of Old English

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Punctuation in the 18th Century

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The majority of sentences were compound or complex, as it was fashionable to use multi-clause sentences connected with colons or semi-colons. To make the writer seemed more learned

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Modern grammatical changes affected by speech practices

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1. Adverbs being replaced by adjectives (e.g. you've done great!)

2. Prepositions (e.g. bored of/down to/talk with)

3. Irregular verbs are still altering (e.g. I've wrote it down for you)

4. Pronouns (e.g. whom disappearing as an object pronoun, being replaced with who)

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18th Century Grammar Influences

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1. Standardisation

2. Hierarchical and formal society with emphasis on conventions and rules

3. Writing valued as separate from speech

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19th Century Grammar Influences

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1. Continuing standarisation

2. Changes in class attitudes

3. Beginnings of universal education

4. Dialectical voices represented in literature

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20th/21st Century Grammar Influences

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1. Worldwide and American English

2. Technology

3. Social levelling and equality

4. Oral language/forms affecting writing styles

5. Growing informality

6. Growth of entertainment and leisure industries

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Synthetic personalisation

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Persuasive media, e.g. advertising, use pronouns to create a pseudo-relationship with the the audience (e.g. you)

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Mitigation

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Politicians use this to diverge the responsibility, such as by using the collective pronoun 'we'

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Omission

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Where sounds disappear from words, often the clipping of the final consonant

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Assimilation

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The pronunciation of one phoneme is affected by an adjacent phoneme e.g. don't you is pronounced as dohnchu

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Reasons for Phonological Change (Jean Atchison, Language Change: Progress or Decay)

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1. Ease of articulation - some people view changing phonology as a sign of laziness rather than an inevitable process

2. Social prestige and changes in society - people move around more and along with mass communication there is less regional variation. The impact of radio and technology has grown and the informalisation of these media. People's desire to create a cultural identity has caused more sociolectal variations and a move against 'correct' speech.

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1755

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Johnson's Dictionary published

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1762

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Robert Lowth's Grammar Book published

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1794

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Lindley Murray's Grammar Book published

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1884 -

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First 'fascicle' of the Oxford English Dictionary

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1926

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Henry W. Fowler's Modern English Usage published

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Jean Atchison

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1. Damp-spoon syndrome - language changes because people are lazy

2. Crumbling castle view - Language is like a beautiful castle that must be preserved