Language And Lingistics University Of Windsor George Yule #1

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Semanticity

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Linguistic utterances, whether simple phrases or complete sentences, convey meaning, convey meaning by means of the symbols we use to form the utterances.

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Arbitrariness

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There is no inherent connection between sounds (or words) and there meanings or physical referents.

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Displacement

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Allows language users to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment. Allows us to live with a past, present, and future.

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Duality

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means that language is structured on two different levels: the units of the ‘lower’ level of phonology are arranged to form units of the ‘higher’ level of grammar.

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Pragmatics

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Study of how language is used to communicate within its situational context.

Examination of language in given situation. (How it works or fails in given situations)

How we use language in specific context and which intention we have when we say something.

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Sentence

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a structured string of words carrying a certain meaning. (set of words)

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Utterance

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a sentence that is said, written or signed in a particular context by someone with a particular intention, by means of which the speaker intends to crate an effect on the addressee. (what we do with the particular sentence)

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Invisible Meaning

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Meaning that is recognized even if it is not said or written based on shared expectations and assumptions.

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Context/Co-text

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Set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence.


Because we have shared context and interpretations the interpretation is not only based on the words that we see, but also context in which expect them to be in.

Hint 9

The crane was wading by the marsh.
The word crane can easily be interpreted by the meaning of the words around it. (Up and down)
The crane was lifting the boulder.
The crane was flying by!

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Physical context

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place and time when the conversation happens.

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"That’s a crane."
The only way to interpret it is by using physical context. (where are we at?)

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The relevant context

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Mental representation of those aspects of what is physically out there that we use in arriving at an interpretation.

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Deixis
(deictic expressions)

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the marking of the orientation or position of entities and events with respect to certain points of reference. Any word that would go with pointing.

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Person deixis

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(it, him, them, you…) Point to person

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Spatial deixis

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(here, there, near that…) Point to space

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Temporal deixis

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(now, then, last week…) Point to time

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Textual deixis

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Reference is within the same text. Nouns are not deixis expressions.
"He started to swear at me and curse. That made me even angrier."

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We can also idicate ______ toward or to speaker and away from the speaker by using deixis.

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movement

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Deictic Projection

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Ability that we have to project ourselves to places where we are not really.

On a map: "YOU ARE HERE", map is projecting that you are somewhere where you are not.

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Reference

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Act by which speaker/writer uses language to enable listener/reader to identify something. "Jeneffer, my cat, the cat"

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Speaker reference

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what the speaker is referring to by using some linguistic expression.
Veriee according to the speaker and context.
"Here comes Queen Elizabeth" Using queen to refer to a snobby individual.

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Linguistic reference:

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the systematic denotation of some linguistic expression as part of a language.

“Here comes Queen Elizabeth” Refers to the actual queen.

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Referent

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the entity identified by the use of referring expressions such as a noun or noun phrase.

“That bird looks sick”

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Extension

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Set of all potential referents for a referring expression. Can refer to all past, all present and future birds in the world.

Anything that u can use word bird to refer to. “you are such a bird”.

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Prototype

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a typical member of the extension of referring expression: e.g., a robin or a blue jay, but not a pelican or an ostrich. e.g., a robin or a blue jay, but not a pelican or an ostrich. Some elements are more prototypical than others (which one comes to mind first)

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Stereotype

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List of characteristics that describe a prototype.

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Inference

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Additional information used by the listener to create connection between what is being said and what must be meant.


"Where’s the spinach salad sitting? "
"He’s sitting by the door."
The spinach salad doesn’t sit, it is the person who ordered that is sitting. Person listening has to be able to make a connection between the two.

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Language perception

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involves the unconscious, immediate interpretation of the text being heard or read.

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Three types of Inferences:

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Logical Inference
Bridging Inference
Elaborative Inference

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Coreference

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two linguistic expressions that refer to the same real world entity are said to be coreferencial.

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“Jay Leno is the host of the Tonight Show”
They are not synonymous, it does not mean that they mean the same thing.

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Anaphora

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subsequent reference to an already introduced entity/ A linguistic expression that refers to another linguistic expression. “ I saw a woman going in to the bank” “ the woman went to a teller” refers to the same woman later in the text.

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"We found a house to rent, but the kitchen is very small."

We have words tat are samatically related, if X is a house than X has a kitchen because most houses have a kitchen.

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Presupposition

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I am assuming that you understand what I am talking about based what we know about the world. Sometimes we might be wrong but for the most part it is true.

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“Your brother is waiting outside” presupposes you have a brother.
“Martina aced chemistry” presupposes “Martina took chemistry”

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Presupposition test is called:

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consistency under negation test

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Consistency under negation test

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Ether positive or negative sentence the presupposition remains true.
"Martha didn't ace chemistry" still presupposes that "Martha took chemistry"

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Presupposition Triggers

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Phrases or words that assume/ presuppose, the truth of the presuposition expressed in a sentence or the speaker's attitude about it. They carry some expectations.

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Types of Presupposition triggers.

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Wh- questions (wh-(at/ere/o))
Factive verbs
Non-factive verbs
Implicative verbs

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Factive verbs

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Presupposition triggers that: Demonstrate fact. (acknowledge, be aware, bear in mind, demonstrate, grasp, make clear, note, prove, regret, resent, show, take into consideration, take into account)

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Non-factive verbs

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Pressuposition triggers that: allege, assert, assume, believe, charge, claim, conclude, conjecture, fancy, figure, maintain, suggest, suppose, think

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Implicative verbs

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Pressuposition triger verbs that imply something.

"You did not enclose your check."

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Speech Act

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the action performed by a speaker with an utterance. Used in speech to describe action such as requesting, commanding, questioning, informing.

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Three types of speech acts:

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Locutionary Act
Illocutionary Act
Perlocutionary Act

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Illocutionary Act

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what the speaker does in uttering a sentence. By saying something we DO something.

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Locutionary Act

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the act of simply uttering a sentence from a language. It's a description of what the speaker says. (Stating, questioning, promising, apologizing)

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Perlocutionary Act

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the effect of the act on the hearer.

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Seven types of Illocutionary Acts:

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Representatives
Directives
Questions
Commissives
Declarations
Expressives
Vrdictives

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Representatives

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Illocutionary Act utterances used to describe some state of afairs and can generally be characterized as true or false.
I have five toes on my right foot.
Statements, assertions, claims, hypotheses, denials, confessions, admissions, notifications, descriptions, predictions, conclusions and so on.

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Directives

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Illucutionary act utterances intended to get the hearer to address or carry out an action.

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Questions

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Illucutionary act are utterances used to get the hearer to provide information.

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Commissives

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Illucutionary acts that are used to commit the speaker to a course of action.
I’ll meet you at the library at 11:00 am.
Promises, vows, pledges, threats, offers, bets, acts of volunteering and guaranteeing, and so on.

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Declarations

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Illicutionary acts that bring about the state of affairs they name. In other words they change the status of some entity.
I pronounce you husband and wife.
Appointments, blessings, firings, baptisms, arrests, resignations, surrendering, naming, excommunications, marriages, declaring mistrials, etc.

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Expressives

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Illocutionary acts that indicate the speaker's psychological state or attitude.

"I’m sorry for calling you a dweeb."

Apologies, thanks, condolences, congratulations, greetings, welcoming, deploring, objecting, etc.

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Verdictives

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Illocutionary acts make assessment or judgments of something.
"You’re out" (uttered by an umpire at a baseball game). "Your essay is crap!" " That's a very good movie."

Ranking, assessing, appraising, condoning.

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"I'll never leave you" is _______ type of illocutionary act.

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comissive

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Columbus Discovered America in 1942 is _____ type of illocutionary act.

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representative

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Way to go! is ____ type of illocutionary act.

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verdictive/expressive

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I pledge $50 is ___ type of illocutionary act.

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comissive

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Why don't you like to ski? is ___ type of illocutionary act.

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question

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Why don't you spend less time watching TV? is ___ type of illocutionary act.

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Question/Directive

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I am sorry about your mother, Peggy- my heart goes out to you is ___ type of illocutionary act.

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Expressive

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Thank you so much for your generous gift is ___ type of illocutionary act.

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Expressive