Kin 300

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Inferential statistics

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A category of statistics that deals with reaching conclusions from incomplete information.

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Continuous variable

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A quantitative variable with an infinite number of possible levels, limited only by the measuring instrument. Examples include height, weight, and distance.

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Parameter

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A value that represents a characteristic of a population such as the population mean or standard deviation.

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Internal validity

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The degree to which changing the level of the independent variable causes a change in the dependent variable.

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Ordinal Level of Measurement

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Variables at this measurement level are categorical and discrete in nature. Examples include finish position in a race (1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . .) and t-shirt size (S, M, L, XL).

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Descriptive statistics

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Statistic that are used to describe the basic characteristics of the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about the sample being measured.

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Single-blind study

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A study in which the subject does not know whether he or she is in the treatment or control group.

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Independent variable

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A variable used for classification or grouping purposes.

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Interval Level of Measurement

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Variables at this measurement level may be quantitative or qualitative, discrete or continuous. Examples include temperature (F), shoe size, and IQ.

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Population

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All members of a specified group.

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Systematic sample

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A sample obtained using a pre-determined system (not random). For example, choosing every 10th subject from the population.

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Representative sample

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A sample that reflects the characteristics of interest from the target population.

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Nominal Level of Measurement

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Variables at this measurement level are categorical, qualitative, and discrete in nature. Although numbers can be used to represent levels of the variables, the numbers are treated as labels. Examples include brand of shoes, Social Security number, and gender.

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Quantitative variable

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A variable whose levels are described numerically. Examples include temperature, % body fat, and time.

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Stratified sample

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A sample chosen from a population that has been subdivided based upon predetermined characteristics such as gender, race, and socio-economic status.

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Experiment (clinical trial)

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A carefully designed study that seeks to determine, under controlled conditions, the effectiveness of a treatment method.

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External validity

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The degree to which the experimental results can be generalized to the target population.

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Avis Effect

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This effect occurs when subjects in a control group discover they are in a control group and they react by “trying harder.”

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Double-blind study

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A study in which neither the subject nor the experimenter knows to which group the subject has been assigned.

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Sample

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A subset of a population.

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Statistic

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A value that represents a characteristic of a sample such as the sample mean or standard deviation.

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Discrete variable

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A variable, either qualitative or quantitative, with a finite number of levels that cannot be subdivided meaningfully. Examples include heart rate, IQ, and color.

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Qualitative variable

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A variable whose levels are described with words or phrases. Examples include color (red, white, blue), gender (female, male), and size (small, medium, large).

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Ratio Level of Measurement

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Variables at this level of measurement possess the characteristic of a measurement baseline. Examples, measured quantitatively, include height, weight, and distance.

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Dependent variable

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The variable that is measured in a research study. It is free to vary.

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Random sample

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A sample drawn in such a way that all members of the population have an equal chance of being selected.

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Biased sample

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A sample drawn in such a way that some members of the population are more likely to be chosen than others.

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Hawthorne Effect

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This effect occurs when subjects in a treatment group improve their performance because they are aware they are being treated or tested.

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Retrospective study

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The name for a study in which a researcher looks at previously collected data. Subjects are not treated, variables are not controlled, and cause & effect may not be inferred.

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Rosenthal Effect

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This effect occurs when a researcher inadvertently influences subjects’ performances, which consequently affects the outcome of a study.

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Convenience sample

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A sample that could be drawn from an “intact class” or by asking people to volunteer. The sample is not randomly chosen and is typically used because of the ready availability of the subjects. This is a biased sample.

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Variable

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Something that can take on more than one value.

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“Levels” of a variable

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The name given to the various values a variable can assume.

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Validity

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The degree to which an instrument measures what it intends to measure.

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Authority

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An unscientific method of problem solving in which reference to an authority is used as a source of knowledge.

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Control variable

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A variable that is held constant at one level throughout an experiment.

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Tenacity

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An unscientific method of problem solving in which people cling to certain beliefs regardless of the lack of supporting evidence.

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Prospective study

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A type of study in which subjects are enrolled and followed over time to determine the frequency with which a specific outcome develops.

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Reliability

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The ability of an instrument to produce the same results under the same conditions.

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Random error

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Error, or variability in a measurement, that is caused by something we cannot account for.

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Extraneous variables

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Undesirable variables that influence the relationship between the variables that an experimenter is examining. These variables are undesirable because they add error to an experiment.

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Systematic error

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Error, or variability in a measurement, that is caused by something we can account for.

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Rationalistic method

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An unscientific method of problem solving in which we derive knowledge through reasoning.

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Intuition

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An unscientific method of problem solving using intuitive knowledge or common sense.

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Measurement error

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The failure of identically treated subjects to elicit the same response.

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Establishing cause and effect

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Four criteria:
(1) The cause and effect must occur close together in time.
(2) The cause must happen before the effect.
(3) The effect should not happen without the presence of the cause.
(4) No plausible alternate explanations exist.

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Random Assignment

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The process whereby subjects are randomly assigned to treatment and control groups.

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Placebo Effect

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The measurable, observable, or felt improvement in health or behavior not attributable to a medication or treatment that has been administered.