Johannes Kepler

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Johannes Kepler

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mathematician, alchemist, horoscopes, Neo-Platonist; XXX Laws of Planetary Motion – planets orbit the sun in elliptical orbits; all of nature was integrated to a greater whole; his mother was tried as a witch; modified Brahe’s work – first astronomer to use telescope; laws of distance from the sun

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Galileo Galilei

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The Father of Modern Astronomy”; champion of Copernicus’ theories, new celestial observations; struggle with the Catholic Church; worked on Kepler’s laws of Planetary Motion; use of quantitative experiments; idea that the Heavens were not immutable; controversial to religion; Church forced him to be excommunicated or executed; he’s a devout Christian & wasn’t trying to work against the Church; put under house arrest until death

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Francis Bacon

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period of the Counter-Reformation; the promise of the new science; (1561-1626): New Atlantis – 1620, science would produce “things of use & practice for man’s life”; patient, systematic observation & experimentation; science as a useful tool for rulers

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Isaac Newton

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historian, theologian, alchemist, mathematician; Law of Gravitation; presentation of an orderly universe; developed concept of inertia

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Descartes

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The Inductive Method; you could never assume anything, doubt everything; few basic assumptions; objectivity of the observer

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Divine Right of Kings

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Political theory of the divine right of kings: the institution of the monarchy/kingship had been created by God and the monarch represented as the God’s representative on earth; commonplace during the time

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Absolute monarchy:

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In England, Parliament became an important part of civil government (couldn’t be ignored by a king); went from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy… The rest of Europe had Absolute Monarchy (Denmark,

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The English Civil War

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economic & political difficulties (mid-17th century); English monarchy sold off lands confiscated from churches to avoid crisis; problem – reduced the crown’s long-term revenue (only immediate money); wealth was really based off land; the crown had to ask for extraordinary grants for taxation from parliament – called for political reform; King of England goes to Parliament to ask for money & nobles say yes if he enacts some political reforms; Hobbes

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Constitutional monarchy:

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In England, Parliament became an important part of civil government (couldn’t be ignored by a king); went from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy; Constitutional Monarchy developed in England, Sweden & Holland; France went from a constitutional monarchy into a democratic republic; 1789-1793: Constitutional monarchy

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Nobility

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entertained at the royal palace or country houses; practiced wet nursing (giving children to someone else to breastfeed) ← workingwomen; legal rights

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Entail

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a restriction that prohibited the breakage of land of central estate; you could only add land but not take apart; 400 lands owned parts of properties; in Spain, 4 families owned 1/3 of the land

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Bourgeoisie

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middle class; people that dominated trade nationally & internationally; during 18th century, they grew in numbers; cultivated their own culture & class identity; passed into nobility with purchase of land & office; for those who didn’t; close to family; values not on leisure and ostentatious wealth; industrious, frugal & sober; provided their own entertainment – concerts; values of romantic love; (under nobility

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau

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Justification of Terror – Robespierre; XXX – idea that within a nation, there’s a general will; you need terror to keep the virtue going; realization of what people want overall to make this republic of virtue possible

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Coffeehouses

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Learned conversation was an important part of life: conversations took place in either salons or coffee houses – coffee houses are big in Europe b/c it becomes more popular – started importing more tea and coffee – 17th – 18th century – primarily in England & also popular in France – provided free newspapers & pamphlets – there had been Rules of Polite Conversation

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Salons

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amost exclusively in France; women usu excluded from talks; happened in the home of an aristocratic noblewoman; salons meet on a regular schedule & lunch – based convos on letters – compilation of encyclopedias; must be invited by woman; rule of polite conversation enforced by women who hosted them; women seemed like governors of unruly discourse – hosts would mediate rather than participate in convos

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Estates General

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In 18th century, taxes began to increase (28% increase in some parts of the country ☹) – due to cost of mid-century wars; France more or less paid for American Revolution (raised taxes); 1780s, government was nearly bankrupt – poor fiscal administration; desperately needs money – thinks to tax aristocracy; July 1788: ends up summoning the XXX XXX (body that hasn’t met since 1614); each estate appointed local representatives; came to Paris with Cahiers de doleance

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Jacobins

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August 1792, armed Parisians spurred by the XXX club: radical political club in Paris; stormed the royal palace & National Assembly had nothing to do but get Louis suspended; half of the assembly ended up fleeing; decide what to do with king –– 1799, legislature split between Neo-Jacobins & “revisionists” wanted to redesign the republic; revisionists wanted to get rid of the Neo-Jacobins, so they wanted a figure to become more structured → took Bonaparte b/c he was considered a hero with wars at the Italian front

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Assignats

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otes that were backed by land taken from the church; auctioned off land to the highest bidder (like bonds) – kept printing it out even if they didn’t have enough land; Too many assignats → therefore, inflation

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Civil Constitution of the Clergy

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1790: reduced the number of bishops from 130 to 80; they decided that the bishops should be elected by electoral assemblies & should be paid for a uniform salary; making the clergy civil administrators (France); demanded an oath of loyalty to this constitution

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Congress of Vienna

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Now there’s a restoration; a peace designed within Europe; settled boundaries between states; resettling borders was an issue (hereditary leaders – deal with your own countries) peace treaty – Congress of Vienna 1814-1815: 1] no one power should dominate → Britain & Austria stopped Prussia & Russia from gaining the upper hand; boundary disputes; 2] restoration of legitimate monarchs – Bourbon Family (royal family in France {, Spain & Italian states}); 3] France should be contained

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The Continental System

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: blockaded European ports from British trade (Napoleon couldn’t fight Britain – economic warfare)

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Luddites

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wanted to maintain a traditional version of work & independence of labor; broke machines → declared a capital crime; some men were executed; clashed with British army; felt feared that they would lose jobs

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James Watt

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1775: invented and improved condensing steam engine; partnered with iron makers (Boulton & Wilkanson) & first practical application of this improved steam engine was in the iron industry; pumping, moving wheels – really transformed the iron industry (Industrial Revolution)

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Enclosure

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Under way already in 16th century; long-term process; prosperous families had already been consolidating strips and open fields; the issue is that wealthier people would buy off other people’s strips of land, but your property won’t be together but maybe trade; at some point, the lords of manors agreed to carve up everyone’s field to fix this problem (closed areas would be divided up – enclosure

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Agricultural Revolution

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a revolution in technique, not technology; began in England & Holland in 17th century; part of it due to the policy called

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Domesticity

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the idea that women should spend lives entirely in the domestic sphere; should be completely in the home; charity was considered an extension of women being workers

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George Stephenson:

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ather of the modern railroad; made wheels smooth & cartwheels grooved; improved Trevithick’s version; 1829, won 500 British pounds → said his steam engine could pull a load 3x its own weight at 30mph