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107 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What makes all living things similar?
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same atoms and molecules; metabolize; composed of cells; reproduce and change Mutations
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Polymer
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Larger molecules put together; also called macromolecules
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What are the most important functional molecules in life and the most diverse?
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Proteins
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Amino Acid
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Monomer of the polypeptide chain; has an amino group, a carboxly group, a hydgrogen atom, and one more atom called the R group.
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Polypeptide Chain
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Series of AMINO ACIDS linked by PEPTIDE BONDS
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Enzyme
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A type of protein or RNA that SPEEDS UP (catalyzes) a specific reaction, and is also UNCHANGED by the reaction
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Hemoglobin
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A protein, produced by red blood cells, that FUNCTIONS IN OXYGEN TRANSPORT to where oxygen levels are low
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Ribosomes
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In all cells, a structure that TRANSLATES GENETIC INFORMATION in mRNAs INTO PROTEINS; located outside of the rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
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How many structures does a protein have?
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4: Primary; Secondary; Tertiary; Quarternary
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Primary structure of a protein
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A sequence of amino acids covalently bonded as a peptide chain; N-C-C-N-C-C-N
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Secondary structure of a protein
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Local regions of a polypeptide chain become twisted and folded into helical coils, sheetlike arrays, and loops from HYDROGEN BONDING
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Teritary structure of a protein
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Third level of organization; A polypeptide chain becomes a functional unit; they all bunch up and form a DOMAIN
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Quarternary structure of a protein
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Fourth level of organization; two or more peptide chains come together and bunch up even more
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Methionine
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First Amino Acid EVERY TIME in the chain; AUG
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What makes a PEPTIDE BOND?
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CONDENSATION REACTION (H2O in between) links amino group of one amino acid with carboxyl group of next
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Dipeptide
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Two linked amino acids
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Polypeptide
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Three or more linked amino acids
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What causes the polypeptide chain to twist?
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Hydrogen Bonding
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Protein Syntheisis
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Process of cells building proteins
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Hemoglobin
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Oxygen transporter
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HbS
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Sickle Hemoglobin; molecules stick together when oxygen level is low; clumps cell and slows bloodflow
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What causes Sickle Hemoglobin?
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One substitution in the Globin chain; usually VALINE replaces GLUTAMINE in the SIXTH postion on the chain
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Denaturation
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When polypeptide chains unwind and change shape; usually caused by disruptions with heat, etc...
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R Groups
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the molecular additions that make each amino acid different from the others
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What does an enzyme do?
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promotes chemical reactions internal and external to the cell
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Keratin
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Protein located in the outer layer of the epidermis that contributes to skin, fur, nails, horns, etc..
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Nucleotide
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Organic compoud with a five carbon sugar, nitrogen base, and a phosphate; they CARRY ENERGY, HELP ENZYMES, AND SEND MESSENGES!
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Substrate
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Name of molecule before the enzyme affects it
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Product
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Name of molecure after the enzyme affects it
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What term has examples that end in -ase
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Enzymes
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If two or more enzymes act on a molecule, what becomes the substrate?
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The last effected stage of the molecule, not the first
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Metabolic Pathway
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Process of a molecule being mutated from the substrate to the product
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If the metabolic pathway goes A-B-C-D-E, what are B-C-D?
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Intermediates
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What happens when an intermediate gets interferred with?
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Last completed product results
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What puts the amino acids in the proper order to make the proteins?
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DNA
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What repeating subunits of
smaller molecules link to create DNA? |
Nucleotides
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What does a virus insert into bacteria?
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DNA ONLY!
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Bacteriophages
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Viruses that infect bacteria
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Eukarytotic Cell
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Type of cell that starts life with a nucleus and other oraganelles
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Prokaryotic Cell
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Single-celled organism, often walled, witout a nucleus or aother organelles, usually BACTERIA
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What is a nucleotide composed of?
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Phosphate molecule (CHNOPS); a sugar (deoxyribose); a base
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Helicase enzyme
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unwinds the double-stranded helix
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DNA polymerase enzyme
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adds nucleotides (monomer after monomer)
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Ligase enzyme
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fills in gaps
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Is a nucleotide a
polymer? |
No, it’s
not a repeating chain of molecules |
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What gives the four bases found in DNA their name and their uniqueness?
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The ring structure on the bases
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A gets matched with..
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T
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G gets matched with...
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C
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T gets matched with...
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A
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C gets matched with..
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G
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DNA polymerase
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The enzyme responsible for stringing the DNA nucleotides together P—S—P; A-T, G-C
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Helicase
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The enzyme responsible for unwinding the double-stranded helix
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Ligase
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The enzyme responsible for filling in the gaps of DNA
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Thymine Dimers
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Mutations on DNA introduced by ultra-voilet light
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Mutagen
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Any chemical or physical factor
that can change the sequence of DNA; all associated with cancer |
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Where is DNA located?
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Nucleus
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Uracil
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Connects to A in RNA
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Replication is a process done by what nucleic acid?
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DNA
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Transcription is a process done by what nucleic acid?
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RNA
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What two reasons cause DNA to unwind?
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Replication and Protein Synthesis
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RNA polymerase
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Enzyme that causes DNA to unwind, open and add RNA nucleotides to the RNA molecule
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mRNA
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Messneger Ribonucleotides; Carries protein-building instruction
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tRNA
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Transfer Ribonucleotides; Delivers amino acids to ribosomes
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Transcript
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RNA copies of DNA
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How is RNA Transcription different than DNA Replication?
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Only one product in RNA replication
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Promoter
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A nucleoteide base sequence in the DNA that signals the START OF A GENE; For transcription to occur, RNA polymerase must FIRST bind to a promoter; Usually a lot of A's and T's
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Anticodon
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Series of three nucleotide bases in a tRNA that can base-pair with mRNA codons
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Codon
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Linear sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA; codes for an amino acid or a termination signal in protein synthesis
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Negative control
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Regulatory proteins slow down or limit gene activity
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Positive control
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Regulatory proteins promote or enhance gene activity
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Stop Codon
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Stops the amino acid chain from continuing
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Insertion
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Extra base added into gene region; shifts the reading frame; Result in altered amino acid sequence
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Deletion
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Base removed from gene region; shifts the reading frame; Result in altered amino acid sequence
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Gene
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Section of DNA that encodes one structural or functional component of an organism
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What can increase a mutation rate?
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Natural and synthetic chemicals, and radiation
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Mutagens found in x-rays
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Ionizing
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Mutagens found in UV rays
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Nonionizing
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How many molecules are in Hemoglobin?
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4: Two alpha chains on top "quadrants," and two beta chains on bottom
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Heme
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Iron-containing, oxygen-transporting group in Hemoglobin that HOLDS THE OXYGEN
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ATP
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Nucleotide that transfers its phosphate groups to other molecules inside cells
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Coenzyme
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Enzyme helpers; Move electrons and hydrogen from one reaction site to another
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Nucleid Acid
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Stores and retrieves heritable information in all cells; joins sugar to phosphate
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DNA Replication
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How the molecule is duplicated before a cell divides
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What amino acid gets replaced to form sickle cell anemia? Where is it located?
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Valine replaces Glutamine on the sixth position
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2 Examples of structural proteins outside of the cell
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Flagella, Pili
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What are the two steps of transforming a gene into a protein?
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Transcription and Translation
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What part of the nucleotide determines its name?
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The Base
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Transcription
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DNA transcribes to RNA
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Translation
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RNA's genetic info is translated into a new polypeptide chain
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Why does DNA replicate?
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Because cells divide or replicate
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Introns
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Nucleotides that are removed from the pre-RNA molecule during transcription
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Exons
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Nuclueotides that remain in the RNA during transcription
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Initiation
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First step of translation; Ribosome, mRNA, and tRNA form a cluster
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Elongation
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Second step of translation; polypeptide chain is assembled as mRNA moves between 2 ribosomal subunits; tRNAs bring amino acids to the ribosome; tRNA and mRNA bond by codons
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Termination
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Ribosome reaches mRNAs stop codon
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Base-pair substitutions
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Gene mutation where a base is copied incorrectly during DNA replication
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Frameshift mutations
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Insertion or deletion of nucleotides; shift the reading frame; alters amino acid sequence
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Are most genes turned off?
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YES!
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Operator
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Binding sites for a repressor
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Repressor
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typre of regulatory protein that can prevent transcription
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lac operon
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Pormoter, operators, and genes all together
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Homeotic Genes
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Master genes that guide development of body parts; Switch on different genes in different parts of body
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Restriction Enzymes
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Enzyme that cuts up DNA
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Plasmid
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a small circle of bacterial DNA
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Uses for DNA Sequencing
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Evolutionary trends; Potential therapies for genetic diseases; Data bases using computer technology
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DNA Fingerprints
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Unique array of DNA fragments when chromosome are digested with restriction enzymes
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Cloning
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Making a genetically identical copy of an individual
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