Isa Arborist Chapter 1: Tree Biology

Front 1

_______ Are the basic building blocks of structure.

Back 1

Cells

Front 2

The process of new cells being created from existing cells (cellular reproduction) takes place in what specialized zone?

Back 2

Meristems

Front 3

What is the name of the process that cells undergo which causes a change in their structure and permits them to assume a variety of specific functions?

Back 3

Differentiation

Front 4

Cells with similar structure and function are arranged into _______ such as ______ or _______.

Back 4

tissues; bark; wood

Front 5

Tissues are them organized into ________ of which plants have 5. Name all 5.

Back 5

Organs; 1. leaves 2. stems 3. roots 4. flowers 5. fruit

Front 6

What are the two types of meristems and what do they product?

Back 6

1. Primary; produce the cells that result in elongation of shoots and roots; AKA apical meristems 2. Secondary; product cells that result in increases in diameter; AKA lateral meristems

Front 7

Primary growth is described as...

Back 7

growth of shoots and roots from the apical meristems – Primary meristems/apical meristems

Front 8

What allows a tree to grow large? Extra. _______ lack this type of growth.

Back 8

Secondary growth. The presence of secondary meristems, growing within the stems, branches, and roots and producing wood.

Front 9

In shoots, primary or ________ meristems are found inside ________.

Back 9

Apical; buds

Front 10

What protects the the meristematic region of buds? In roots?

Back 10

Overlapping scales or modified leaves of buds. Root Cap.

Front 11

Trees have _______ secondary (lateral) meristems. What are they called?

Back 11

Two. 1. Cambium 2. Cork Cambium

Front 12

__________ is a thin sheath of dividing cells that produces the cells that will become the vascular system of the tree.

Back 12

Cambium

Front 13

What are the two main tissues that make up the cambium and where are they found within the cambium?

Back 13

1. Xylem – inside 2. Phloem – outside

Front 14

Cork cambium produces ________ also called __________.

Back 14

Bark; periderm

Front 15

Unlike animal cells, plant cells have _____ _______.

Back 15

Cell walls

Front 16

What is the structural component of the primary cell wall?

Back 16

Cellulose

Front 17

What is the other main component of plant cells which provides the strength and rigidity that allows tree to grow tall?

Back 17

Lignin

Front 18

Back 18

apical meristem; residual meristem; ground meristem, procambium; procambium; ground meristem, xylem, phloem; Pith

Front 19

Back 19

Bark; Outside ––> In; Cuticle; epidermis; cork cells; cork cambium; phelloderm; cortex; phloem; cambium; xylem

Front 20

The xylem, or _______ of a tree, has 4 primary functions. List them.

Back 20

Wood; 1. conduction of water and dissolved minerals (elements); 2. support of the weight of the tree; 3. storage of carbohydrate reserves; 4. defense against the spread of disease and decay

Front 21

Xylem is a complex tissue, composed of both _____ and _____ cells.

Back 21

Dead; living

Front 22

The living tissue of the tree is known as ____________.

Back 22

Symplasm

Front 23

Xylem is also known as the ________ of the tree

Back 23

wood

Front 24

Which is not one of the 4 primary functions of xylem:

A - Defense against the spread of disease and decay

B - Movement of carbohydrate reserves for use

C - Support of the weight of the tree

D - Storage of carbohydrate reserves

E - Conduction of water and dissolved minerals

Back 24

B - Movement of carbohydrate reserves for use

Front 25

The non-living portion of the tree, which in mature trees represents a large portion of the volume is known as?

Back 25

Apoplasm

Front 26

Gymnosperms xylem is composed of what three (3) things?

Back 26

Tracheids, fibers, and parenchyma cells

Front 27

What is the function of the tracheids and what do the cells look like?

Back 27

Conduction of water and provide mechanical support; elongated, dead cells with pointy ends and thickened walls

Front 28

What is the function of fibers?

Back 28

Fibers provide mechanical strength

Front 29

These cells are living cells that are interspersed among the other xylem cells. They are located in the outer layers of xylem and store carbohydrates and help defend against decay and have a structural function cross the grain

Back 29

Parenchyma cells

Front 30

They xylem of hardwood trees are made of the same three cells as gymnosperms except they also have what?

Back 30

Vessels

Front 31

What is the purpose of vessels found in the xylem of hardwood trees? What are they made of?

Back 31

Vessles are the conducting elements in hardwoods. Vessels are made of stacks of dead, hollow cells that form long tubes of water-conducting elements.

Front 32

Which is efficeint in water-conduction: tracheids or vessels?

Back 32

Vessels, silly.

Front 33

Parenchyma cells are more abundant in ___________ trees and arranged close to the vessel elements.

Back 33

Hardwood

Front 34

The _________ and __________ properties of different types of trees are related to the arrangement of the cell types within the xylem.

Back 34

Physical; Biological

Front 35

Ring porous trees form ________ vessels early in the growing season and __________ vessels later in the season.

Back 35

wide; narrower

Front 36

Give three (3) examples of ring porous trees.

Back 36

Elm (Ulmus); Oak (Quercus); Ash (Fraxinus)

Front 37

Diffus porous trees product vessels of ___________ size throughout the growning season.

Back 37

uniform

Front 38

Give three (3) examples of diffuse porous trees.

Back 38

Maple (Acer); Planetree (Platanus); Poplar (Populus)

Front 39

True or False: Growth rings are visible in the phloem layer in a cross section of a tree.

Back 39

FALSE. Growth rings are visible in the xylem layer in a cross section of a tree.

Front 40

Growht rings are a result of what?

Back 40

The seasonal production of xylem by the cambium

Front 41

Conifers do not have vessels and are said to have ___________ wood.

Back 41

nonporous

Front 42

The growth rings of tropical trees, if present, may not be annual due to their __________ growing conditions.

Back 42

Constant

Front 43

What trees donot form rings of xylem at all?

Back 43

Palms

Front 44

True or False: All of the conducting elements in the xylem transport water.

Back 44

FALSE. Not all of the conducting elements of xylem transport water.

Front 45

In _________, two to twelve rings may actually conduct water in the xylem.

Back 45

Conifers

Front 46

True or False: In trees such as elm, only the outermost one or two rings conduct water in the xylem.

Back 46

TRUE.

Front 47

What is sapwood? What type of living cell is heavily present in sapwood?

Back 47

Sapwood is the xylem that conducts water. Parenchyma cells

Front 48

What is heartwood? What types of cells are found in heartwood?

Back 48

Nonconducting tissue. Non-living cells

Front 49

True or False: Sapwood can sometimes be darker in color that heartwood.

Back 49

FALSE. Heartwood is sometimes darker in color than sapwood.

Front 50

Phloem moves __________ produced in the leaves throughout the plant for ________ or ___________.

Back 50

Carbohydrates; storage; consumption

Front 51

True or False: Phloem transport requires energy.

Back 51

TRUE.

Front 52

Phloem is composed primarily of living cells. Which of these is not a component of phloem?

A - Sieve Cells

B - Companion Cells

C - Sieve Tube Elements

D - Parenchyma Cells

E- None of the above

Back 52

D - Parenchyma Cells

Front 53

Phloem in conifers is made up of what type of cells?

Back 53

Sieve cells

Front 54

Phloem in hardwoods is made up of what types of cells?

Back 54

Sieve tube elements and companion cells

Front 55

True or False: Old, nonfunctioning xylem constitutes the wood of a tree and contributes to diamer increase in a tree.

Back 55

TRUE.

Front 56

Old phloem becomes crushed and living cell contents are __________ into the tree and cell walls ____________ into the bark layers.

Back 56

Reabsorbed; incorporated

Front 57

Xylem and phloem make up the __________ or __________ transport system of trees.

Back 57

axial; longitudinal

Front 58

_________ make up the radial transport system of tress.

Back 58

rays

Front 59

True or False: Rays are made up of parenchyma cells that grow radially across the grain in small layers that extend across the growth increments of xylem and into the phloem.

Back 59

TRUE.

Front 60

What are the functions of rays? List all that are correct.

A - assist in restricting decay

B - assist in axial transport

C - transport carbohydrates

D - store carbohydrates as starch

Back 60

A, C, D

Front 61

What is the outer covering of a tree's branches, stems, and in some cases roots?

Back 61

Bark

Front 62

Which is not a primary function of bark?

A - offer defense against injucy

B - reduce water loss

C - storage of carbohydrates

D - composed of protective tissues that moderate the temperature inside the stem

Back 62

C - storage of carbohydrates

Front 63

What helps the bark reduce water loss?

Back 63

The cell walls are impregnated with wax and oil that minimize water loss.

Front 64

True or False: Outer bark is composed of nonfunctional phloem and corky tissues.

Back 64

TRUE.

Front 65

What permits gas exchange in the bark?

Back 65

Lenticels, small openings in the bark.

Front 66

__________ are small stems that provide support structure for leaves, flowers, and fruit.

Back 66

Twigs

Front 67

_________ support twigs. __________ Supports the entire crown.

Back 67

Branches. Trunk.

Front 68

Buds can occur on which of the following: List all that are correct.

A - base of each leaf

B - just under the bark

C - along the twig

D - outside of the branch collar

E - tip of each twig

Back 68

A, B, C, E

Front 69

Buds located at the end of the shoot are called the ___________ or ___________ buds.

Back 69

Apical; terminal

Front 70

Buds that occur along the stem are called __________ or ___________ buds.

Back 70

lateral; axillary

Front 71

True or False: Normally, the lateral bud is the most active on each branch or twig.

Back 71

FALSE. Normally the terminal bud is the most active on each branch of twig.

Front 72

True or False: Axillary or lateral, buds are often dormant.

Back 72

TRUE.

Front 73

Axillary buds may be inhibited by the __________ ___________ of the terminal bud.

Back 73

Apical dominance

Front 74

What is apical dominance? When would a axillary or lateral bud become active?

Back 74

When the termional bud inhibits the growth and development of laterals on the same shoot. A axillary bud would become active as shoot lengthens and/or age, or when pruning removes terminal buds. The would lead to new shoot development.

Front 75

What is produced along stems or roots where primary meristems are not normally found?

Back 75

Adventitious buds.

Front 76

True or False: The loss of normal buds and the growth regulators they produce stimulates the growth of adventitious buds.

Back 76

TRUE.

Front 77

When dormant buds elongate and produce shoots, these shoots are termed _________.

Back 77

epicormic

Front 78

A __________ is a slightly enlarged portion of the twig where leaves and buds arise.

Back 78

Node

Front 79

The _________ is the area between the nodes.

Back 79

Internode

Front 80

What two things are useful in measuring the annual twig elongation in many species and where are they most visible?

Back 80

The leaf scars and terminal bud scales scars. They are most visible on new twigs.

Front 81

What permints the exchange of gases on the outer surface of the twig?

Back 81

Lenticels

Front 82

True or False: Each branch of the tree is autonomous, producing and storing enough carbohydrates to sustain itself and exporting some to the trunk and roots.

Back 82

TRUE.

Front 83

True or False: Branches generally import carbohydrates from other parts of the tree.

Back 83

FALSE. Branches generally do not import carbohydrates from other parts of the tree.

Front 84

Branches are strngly attached to the wood and bark ________ the branch but weakly attached to the wood and bark _________ the branch.

Back 84

Below; above

Front 85

The annual production of layers of tissue at the juction of the branch to the stem is seen as a shoulder or bulge around the branch base called the:

A - Branch bark ridge

B - Included Bark

C - Branch Collar

D - Branch Node

Back 85

C - Branch Collar

Front 86

How is the branch bark ridge formed?

Back 86

In the crotch, the branch and trunk expand against each other which causes the bark to be pushed up forming the branch bark ridge.

Front 87

If the bark in the crotch is surrounded by wood, it is called __________.

Back 87

included bark

Front 88

What are the food producers of the tree?

A - Stems

B - Leaves

C - Roots

D - Seeds

Back 88

C - Leaves

Front 89

Cells that contain green pigment are called?

Back 89

Chloroplasts

Front 90

What is chlorophyll?

Back 90

A green pigment that is the primary leaf pigment that absorbs sunlight.

Front 91

The conversion of solar energy to chemical energy is a process known as ____________.

Back 91

Photosynthesis

Front 92

What are the two primary roles of leaves?

Back 92

Photosynthesis and transpiration

Front 93

____________ is the loss of water through the foliage in the form of water vapor?

Back 93

Transpiration

Front 94

Transpiration helps ______ the leaf and draw _____ up through the __________.

Back 94

Cool; water; xylem

Front 95

Leaf blades provide a large surface area for the absorption of ________ and _____ ______.

Back 95

Sunlight and carbon dioxide

Front 96

True or False: The outer surface of a leaf is covered by a waxy layer called the cortex.

Back 96

FALSE. The outer surface of a leaf is covered by a waxy layer called the cuticle.

Front 97

What are the small openings in the leaf surface that help control the loss of water vapor and the exchange of gases?

A - stoma

B - lenticel

C - stomata

D - stroma

Back 97

C - stomata

Front 98

__________ is absorbed into the leaf, while ______ and _________ are released.

Back 98

Carbon dioxide; oxygen; water vapor

Front 99

How do trees regulate carbon dioxide input and water vapor output?

Back 99

Through guard cells wchih regulate the opening and closing of the stomata in response to environmental stimuli.

Front 100

Give three (3) examples of environmental stimuli that affect guard cell regulation of stomata?

Back 100

Light, temperature, humidity

Front 101

Trees that shed their leaves periodically, typically every year, are called _____________.

Back 101

Deciduous

Front 102

Trees that hold their leaves for more than one year are called_________

Back 102

evergreen

Front 103

Which of the following contribute to the loss of leaves for decidous trees?

A - Day length

B - rainfall

C - temperature

D - all of the above

Back 103

D - all of the above

Front 104

On deciduous trees, the __________ _____ forms at the base of the leaf stalk or _________ as a result of cell changes and growth regulators due to enironmental changes.

Back 104

abscission zone; petiole

Front 105

What are the two functions of the abscission zone?

Back 105

1. to enable leaf drop; 2. to protect the region of the stem from which the leaf has fallen against desication and pathogen entry

Front 106

Short, summy days combined with cold nights enhance the accumulation of __________ and trigger a decrease in ____________ production.

Back 106

Sugars; chlorophyll

Front 107

This pigment is found in leaves and leads to red/purple leaves.

Back 107

Anthocyanins

Front 108

This pigment is found in leaves and leads to yellow/orange/red leaves.

Back 108

Carotenoid.

Front 109

Which is not a primary function of roots?

A - gas exchange

B - anchorage

C - storage

D - absoprtion

E - conduction

Back 109

A - Gas exchange

Front 110

Large roots are similar to the ________ and __________ in structure.

Back 110

trunk; branches

Front 111

The main functions of large roots are _________, _________ and __________.

Back 111

anchorage, storage, and conduction

Front 112

What are the small, fibrous, primary tissues that grow at the end of and along the main, wood roots?

Back 112

absorbing roots

Front 113

The absorbing roots have _________ cells that may be modified into ________ _________.

Back 113

epidermal; root hairs

Front 114

What part of the absorbing roots aid in the uptake of water and minerals?

A - sinker

B - tap

C - root hairs

D - root crown

Back 114

C - root hairs

Front 115

Like shoot tips, root tips contain a _____________ zone where the cells divide and elongate.

Back 115

meristematic zone

Front 116

Roots grow where what is availabe?

A - Carbon dioxide

B - moisutre

C - oxygen

D - Both A and B

E - Both B and C

F - A, B and C

Back 116

E - Both B and C - moisture and oxygen

Front 117

True or False: Most absorbing roots are found in the upper 36 inches of soil.

Back 117

FALSE. The upper 12 inches of soil.

Front 118

What other type of root is usually near the soil surface?

Back 118

horizontal lateral roots

Front 119

________ _________ grow vertically downward off the laterals roots. These roots provide ___________ and increasing the depth of soil exploited by the root system.

Back 119

Sinker roots; anchorage

Front 120

Young trees have a downward growing _____ ______ which is usually chocked out or diverted from downward growth due to unfavorable growing conditions.

Back 120

tap root

Front 121

True or False: Few mature trees have tap roots.

Back 121

TRUE.

Front 122

What is the root crown?

Back 122

it is the area where the roots join the main stem.

Front 123

From the root crown, the roots spread out and _______ rather quickly in diameter in the "zone of _____ _____" to long, spreading, branching roots __ to __ inchese in diameter.

Back 123

decrease; rapid taper, 1 - 2"

Front 124

Roots of trees grown in the open often extend how many times the radius of the crown?

A - 10 to 20 times

B - 5 to 10 times

C - 4 to 8 times

D - 2 to 3 times

Back 124

D - 2 to 3 times

Front 125

The extent and direction of root growth is more a function of _________ than __________.

Back 125

environment; genetics

Front 126

Many roots live in a symbiotic relationship with certain fungi. The result of the association is termed?

Back 126

mycorrhizae (fungus roots)

Front 127

In this form of symbiosis, who benefits?

Back 127

Both organisms, the tree and the fungus

Front 128

The fungi derive ___________ from the roots of the tree and, in turn, the fungi aid the roots in the ________ of water and essential mineral elements.

Back 128

nourishment; absoprtion

Front 129

What two raw materials are necessary for photosynthesis?

A - oxygen and water

B - light and carbon dioxide

C - water and carbon dioxide

D - water and light

Back 129

C - water and carbon dioxide

Front 130

Where does photosynthesis take place?

Back 130

Chloroplasts

Front 131

The tree absorbs ___ _____ from the atmosphere through the ______ in the leaves. Light energy is collected in the ____________. _________ energy is converted to ________ energy (also called _____________).

Back 131

carbon dioxide; stomata; chloroplasts; light; chemical; carbohydrates.

Front 132

Carbohydrates are stored as _______.

Back 132

Starch

Front 133

What is the byproduct of photosynthesis and how is it released?

Back 133

Oxygen, it is released through the stomata.

Front 134

Carbohydrates of photosynthesis are sometimes referred to as?

Back 134

photosynthates

Front 135

Photosynthates are building blocks for which of the following:

A - proteins

B - starch

C - fat

D - growth regulators

E - amino acids

F - all of the above

Back 135

F - all of the above

Front 136

Much of the photosynthat is stored by the tree in the form of ________ for later energy requirements.

Back 136

Starch

Front 137

The process by which the carbohydrates generated by photosynthesis, and stored as starch, and used by the tree is known as?

Back 137

Respiration; it is the constant process of converting food into energy

Front 138

True or False: Trees are capable of anaerobic (absence of free oxygen) respiration.

Back 138

FALSE. Trees are incapable of respiration in the absence of free oxygen.

Front 139

Give two (2) examples of potential anaerobic conditions.

Back 139

1 - flooded conditions, 2 - severe soil compaction

Front 140

What is transpiration?

Back 140

The loss of water from leaf surfaces in the form of water vapor.

Front 141

What is the purpose of transpiration?

Back 141

1 - to cool the leaves, 2 - create a "transpirational pull" that moves water up through the xylem.

Front 142

What part of the leaf helps prevent uncontrolled water loss?

Back 142

the cuticle

Front 143

Gas exchange takes place through ________, which are located primarily on the ___________ of the leaves.

Back 143

stomata; underside

Front 144

What regulates the opening and closing of the stomatal pore and where are they located?

Back 144

Guard cells, two guard cells line the stomatal pore

Front 145

True or False: In trees, stomates usually open in the dark and close in the light.

Back 145

FALSE. The usually open in the light and close in the dark.

Front 146

What three things affect the rate of transpiration?

Back 146

Temperature, humidity, and available water

Front 147

Transpirational water loss is also affected by anatomical features such as:

A - cuticle thinkness

B - tap root depth

C - the presence of hairs on the leaf surface

D - presence of bark

E - location of stomata

Back 147

A, C, E

Front 148

Arborists sometimes use ___________ sprays to close stomatal pores articficially or to add an impervious coating on the leaf surface, to healp reduce water loss during transpiration or drought.

Back 148

antitranspirant

Front 149

________ maintains cell turgidity and is necessary to transport essential elements with the xylem.

Back 149

Water

Front 150

Water enters young roots or mycorrhizal roots, in part, by a process called?

Back 150

Osmosis

Front 151

True or False: Osmosis is the movement of water through a membrane from a region of high potential to a region of low water potential.

Back 151

TRUE.

Front 152

If the water potential is lower in the soil than the roots cells, water will move where? When would this situation exist?

Back 152

Out of the roots and into the soil. An example is when salt concentrations are high in the soil (deicing salts, excessive fertilizer application)

Front 153

What two terms are commonly used when discussing ploem transport?

Back 153

Source and sink

Front 154

Leaves are the ________ of photosynthate. Photosynthate moves through the phloem in a direction from ______ to _______.

Back 154

source; source; sink

Front 155

_______ are plant parts that use more energy than they produce.

Back 155

Sinks

Front 156

True or False: Almost all plant parts, including young leaves, are sinks at some time.

Back 156

TRUE.

Front 157

The growth and development of a tree is the result of the interaction between its _______ potential and the surrounding ____________ conditions.

Back 157

genetic; environmental

Front 158

True or False: Develpmental responses to light, gravity , and temperature can be essential to the survival of the tree.

Back 158

TRUE.

Front 159

The coordination of processes in trees is controlled in part by plant growth substances, also called?

Back 159

plant growth regulators or plant hormones

Front 160

Give examples of a couple of the major hormone groups?

Back 160

auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, abscissic acid

Front 161

Give examples of what functions these plant growth substances control in trees?

Back 161

Cell division, cell elongation, flowering, fruit ripening, leaf drop, dormancy and root development

Front 162

Auxin has been linked to several develpmental phenomena. Auxin is primarily produced in ______ _____ and is known to be important in ______ development.

Back 162

Shoot tips; root

Front 163

Cytokinins are produced in the _______ and are insturmental in _______ initiation and growth.

Back 163

roots; shoot

Front 164

Ausin has also been oufn to be involved in tropisms. What is a tropism?

Back 164

A tropism is the orientation of the direction of growth in response to an exteranl simulus.

Front 165

An example of a tropism is the upward orientation of stem grwoth or the downward direction of root growth. These phenonmena are response to gravity and are examples of ___tropism.

Back 165

Geotropism

Front 166

Name another type of tropism and what causes it?

Back 166

Phototropism; when light has a strong influence on the direction of plant growth

Front 167

Growth regulators present in terminal buds inhibit the growht and development of lateral buds on the same shoot. This is better known as?

Back 167

Apical dominance

Front 168

If the new lateral shoots outgrow the original terminal shoot year after year, a roud-header or ________ tree will result. Give an example of a type of tree with this type of growth.

Back 168

Decurrent, Maple

Front 169

__________ trees tend to have strong apical control, resulting in upright trees with strong central leaders. Give an example of a tree with this type of growth.

Back 169

Excurrent, conifers

Front 170

All trees start out with _______ traits as juveniles and most become more ___________ as they mature.

Back 170

excurrent, decurrent

Front 171

Trees have a number of features that seve as protection. List examples.

Back 171

thick bark, thorns, leaf haris, thick cuticle, etc. production of chemcials that resist insect feeding, pathogen infection or decay

Front 172

Trees have a unique developmental process that allows them to "wall off" decay. It is the process by which trees limit the spread of discoloration and decay. It is known as?

Back 172

Compartmentalization

Front 173

CODIT stands for?

Back 173

Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees

Front 174

How does CODIT work?

Back 174

The tree forms 4 barrier "walls." Wall 1 - resists vertical spread by plugging xylem vessels. Wall 2 - resists inward spread by the more compact latewood cells and by depositing chemcials in these cells. Wall 3 - inhibits lateral spread by activating ray cells to resist decay. Wall 4 - in the next layer of wood to form after injucy (new wood tissue) and protects against the outward spread of decay.

Front 175

Wall 1 - 3 are known as the __________ zone.

Back 175

Reaction

Front 176

Wall 4 is known as the ________ zone.

Back 176

barrier

Front 177

Tropical trees may have a wide-spreading array of __________ roots which are roots at the _______ base that help support the tree and distribute mechanical __________.

Back 177

buttress; trunk; stress

Front 178

Some species of tropical trees produce roots from stems or branches above the ground. These roots are called?

Back 178

aerial roots

Front 179

Aerial roots are thought to have several functions. List them.

Back 179

support (serve as props), gas exchange, propagation

Front 180

New plants produced from aerial roots are called ________ of the parent tree.

Back 180

Clones

Front 181

Palms are __________ and have more in common biologically with ________ than with hardwood trees.

Back 181

monocots; grasses

Front 182

True or False: Palms have a cambium layer and growth rings of xylem.

Back 182

FALSE. Palms do not have a cambium layer or growth rings.

Front 183

What do palms have instead of a cambium layer or growth rings?

Back 183

They have vascualr bundles of phloem and xylem sheather in exceptionally strong fibrous tissues, embedded ina matrix of parenchyma cells and interspersed within the stem.

Front 184

Palms typically have only ____ apical meristem per stem. This primary bud is usually protected by the overlapping leaf bases of the emerging _______.

Back 184

One; fronds

Front 185

The reproductive structures (flowers and fruit) emerge in or below the crown from the ?

Back 185

leaf axials, leave scars or nodes