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186 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the 3 primary functions of the NS
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sensory function, cognitiive function, and motor function
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What is the sensory function
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collect inofrmation about the internal and external environment
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What is the cognitive function
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analyze, interpret, and store the information as necessary
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What is the motor function
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direct and control the proper tissues and organs to respond in a mannter appropriate fro the situation
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What are the 2 main divisions of the nervous system
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CNS and PNS
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What are the 2 main structures of the CNS
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brain and the spinal cord
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What type of symmetry does the brain have
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bilateraly symmetry
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What are the four major structures of the brain
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1. The cerbral hemispheres, 2. The diencephalon
3. Cerbeelum 4. Brain stem |
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What is the basic function of the brain
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is to direct activity of other tissues and organs in response to internal or external signals
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What does the basic function of the brain result in
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in a physological or behaviors change of some kind often BOTH
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What are the 2 primary functions of the spinal cord and VIA
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1. serves as a conduit for info between perihery and brain via nerve fiber tracts
2. integration of some motor and visceral activites VIA reflex arcs |
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What is the spinal cord composed of
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nerve fiber tracts and interneurons
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The vertebral column is a dynamic bony structure that does what
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proctects and allows limited movement
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What are the 5 sectiosn of the spinal cord
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Cervical, Thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal
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The spinal cord is made of both gray matter and white matter--what is each
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gray matter (internal) is made of cell bodies and short nerve fibers
white matter (outer)nerve fiber tracts and glial |
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What are the 2 sets of nerves of PNS and VIA
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spinal nerves--arise from spinal cord, and project out of vertebral column
and cranial nerves arise from teh brain and project into and out of openings in skull |
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Nerves that extend away from the brain or spinal cord are
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efferent nerves
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What type of signal do efferent transmit
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transmit signals from the brain/cord to muscles and organs
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What are 2 types of efferent nerves
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Visceral efferent-
and Somatic efferent |
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What are nerves conduct sensory information back to brain spinal cord
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afferent
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The PNS is functionally organized into four separate componets: they are
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1.ANS
2. Motor effects 3.Somaatosensory system 4.Special Senses |
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What is the ANS
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efferents that controls the visceral functions of the body
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Example of ANS
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glands and smooth musclse--so are GI motility, bladder emptying, and body temp
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The efferent neveres of the motor systme--the CNS is intimately involved with MOST of all motor activity--what is role of PNS
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the PNS relays control commands to the VOLUNTARY muscle through efferent spinal or cranial nerves
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What does the somatosensory system do
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communicates sensory information abou the internal or external environment environment to the brain
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What are the 3 basic types of sensations
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1. mechanoreceptive
2. thermoreceptive 3. pain |
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What is mechanoreceptive
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mechanial displacement which is tactile and position sense
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What are the special senses
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5
1. olfactions 2. hearing 3. taste 4. vision 5. balance |
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The speical senses are confined to what region
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confined to the head region and HIGHLY localized and very specialized
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What are the 2 basic types of cells in the nervous system
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1. neurons
2. glia |
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What is the site of major metabolic activity in the neuron
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cell body--continains nuclues, and transcription/translation and mitochondria
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What are small process that project from the cell body and typically are thinner
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dendrites
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Neurons often have many dnedritic processes that are covered with
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dendritic spines
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What are the receiving end of the neuron
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dentrites
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Neurons communicate with each other via
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snaptic connections on DENDRITES
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What plays a great role in neuronal plasticity, are are dynamic structures that change in response to singals from other neurons or itself
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dentritic spines
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Dentrictic spines play a huge role that is the underlying basis of
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learning and memonry
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What is teh thin tube projecting away from the cell body
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axon
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Where does incoming signals summate into an output signal
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axon hillock
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Each neuron typically one have one axon, but it will often branch into mutiple processes known as
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colaterals
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What is the most important function of the axon
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is transmits information from one cell to another
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What are 2 ways electrical impulses are conducted and propagated
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the passive and volatage gated channels and the electrochemical gradient
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Axon end in a slightly enlarged structure known as, which interacts with
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the presynaptic terminal--the postsynatpic cell
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The point of contact between the axon and a dendrite is called---and the narrow space in between is known as
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point of contact is synapse
and the narrow space between is the synaptic cleft |
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Neurotransmitters are released from teh PREsynaptic terminal, and interat with membrane bond receptors found on BOTH
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postsynaptic cell and presynaptic terminal
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Are mitochondria located in axon terminal for energy production b/c the the axon terminal may be located a long distance from the cell body
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YES
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What is transport from cell body to axon terminal called
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anterograde transport
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What are 2 types of anterograde
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1. fast for movement of macromolecule containing besciles and mitochondria
2. slow for transport of stuctural and metabolic componets |
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What speed in retrograde generally
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FAST--similar to fast anterograde
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What does neuron polarity describe
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one direction of information
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What does post-mitotic means
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once a neuron matures it is no longer able to divide
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Most neurons in CNS are post-mitotic, except
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undifferentiated progentior cells
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Generally onlyn PNS neurons can regenerate only in what type of damgage
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compression or crushing injury
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When a peripheral axon is damaged that part is removed by marophages, while what survives
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cell body
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What occurs after marophages removed the damaged part
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axonal sprouting occurs at the site of injury
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What happens when a PNS nerve is severed
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the spourts may reach the approprate traget, often do not and fucntion is not restored
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What are 3 classification of individual neurons
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1. Sensory
2. Motor 3. Interneurons (ONLY CNS) |
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What are all of the neurons of the CNS
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interneurons
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Interneurons convey information over long distances BETWEEN brain regions are called
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projection interneurons
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Interneurons that convey information WITHIN brain regions
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local interneurons
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Are all PNS axons myleinated
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YES
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The velocity of conduction varies on what 2 components
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1. diameter
2. and degree of myelination |
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What is a nucleus
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a group of functionally related nerve cell bodies in CNS
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What is a column
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a group of nerve cell bodies that are related in function and located and form a column
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Is the column oriented perpendicular to the plane of the cortex, what is it in the spinal cord
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YES
is longitudinal column in spinal cord |
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What is a tract
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a bundle of parallel axons in the CNS
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What is a ganglion
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a group of nerve cell bodies located in a peripheral nerve or root (forms a KNOT)
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What is a nerve, root
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a peripheral sturcture of parallel axons plus associated cell bodies
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What is differance between Glial and Satellite cells
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Glial cells are found in CNS
, where satellite cells only found in PNS |
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What are the 3 types of glial cells
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ONLY IN CNS
1. Astrocytes 2. Oligodendrocytes 3. Microglia |
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What are the 4 main functions of Astrocytes
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1. Buffering of extracellular ions and neurotransmitters
2. Energ transfer 3. Interaction with developing and damaged neurons 4.Modulates neuronal signals |
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Why does Astrocytes buffer extracellular ions and neurotransmitters
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b/c extraceullar ionic concentration must be maintained at precise levels
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How does astrocytes contribute to maintenase of the ionic balance
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via ion channels located in their membrane
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How do Astrocytes do energy transfer
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they absorb glucose from blood and convert it to more easilt metabolized lactate
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Do astrocytes alos have limited capacity to convert glucose to glycogen for straoge
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YES, limited
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How do Astrocyes interact with developing neurons
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during CNS development astroctes help guide neuronal projections to right locations, provide neurotrophic factors,
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How do Astrocytes help neurons
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release chemicals that promote growth the growth of HEALTHY axons and dendrites
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How to Astrocytes NOT help damaged neurons
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1. form scar tissue--prevenys growth
2. Release nitric oxid |
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What does Nitric oxides do to neurons
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facilitates death of neurons
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What do Oligodendrocyts do
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form a myelin sheath that wraps around axons
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Are al neurons myelinated
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NO
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Between each myelin sheath is a small open space known as
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Node of Ranvier
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Action potentials are propagated by
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passive conductance UNDERneath the myelin sheath
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Have is condutance enhanced
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though teh activity of the membrane bound voltage gated ions at the nodes of Ranvier
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What is the benfit of saltaory conduction
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1. energy conservation
2. and more rapids singal conductance |
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What do Microglia do
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they are the macrophages of the CNS
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What are teh Satellite cells of PNS
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Schwann cells
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What do Schwann cells
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same as Oligodendrocytes in CNS--form myelin sheath
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What is different about Schwann cells
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that each Schwann cell wraps indivdiaulls around the axon,and teh aid in regenation of AXONs where damage has occured
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What are the 2 basic signaling mechanims of neurons
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1. electrical signaling
2. chemical signaling |
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The basic conduction of ELECTRICAL signals is dependent on 2 things:
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1. passive and voltage gated ion channels
2. electrochemcial gradient |
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What is the underlying basis of the membrane potential
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electrochemical gradient
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What type of channels are open all the time
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passive ion channels
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What is the membrane potential
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is the unequal distribution of negatively and postively changred molecules accros the neuronal membrane
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What is the positve and negative charges, when membraner at rest
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postive charages are outside, and there is an excess negative charge on the inside of the cell
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How do you calculate the membrane potential
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is the difference between the
Vm=Vin - Vout (ususally 0) |
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What are the 4 primary molecules involved in the establishmnet of the membrane potential
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Cations Na and K
Anions Cl and organic anions |
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What is happening to the CL- ions at rest
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the electrostsatic pressure of teh large organic ANIONS forces CL out of the cell through passive ion channels
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Why does Cl- completely leave the cell, and how does it arrive at equlibrium
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b/c of the resulting concentration gradient keeping the them, the electrostatic pressure forcing them out
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What are 2 reasons Na+ slowly leak into the cells
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1. Na Concentration gradient
2. electrostatic force of the organic ION-ANIONS |
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What does Potassium tend to do
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move out of the cell--
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What maintains the concentration gradient of Na+ and K+
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the sodium-potassium pump
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How does the Na+ K+ pump maintain the concentration gradient
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removing 3 Na+ inside the cell, and puming in two K+
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What are in greatest concentration in and OUT of cell
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IN--- A- and K+
OUT Na+ and Cl- |
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How is an action potential iniated,and what happens
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depolarization of the mebrane that stimulates the opening of Na+ channels--if the membrane is depolarized by at 15-30 mV --then more and more sodium channels will open
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What happensn at peak depolarization
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Na+ channels close, and voltage gate K+ are slow to open--and cause repolarizatoin-and b/c they are slow to close cause hyperpolization
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The iniation of an action potential requies
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the summation of EPSP and IPSP
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NT's that stimulate the opeing of ligand-gated ion channels that allows influx of Na+ and Ca+ do what
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produce an EPSP (excititoary postsynaptic potential)
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Is a single EPSP sub-theshold
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YES
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What NT's stimulate the ligand-gated ion channels that proudce and IPSP
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Cl- and K+
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What are the 3 important principles to the summation of postsynpatic potential
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1. Spatial summation
2. Temporal summuation 3. and many neurons spontaneously generate AP, and summmuation acts to modigy the output or frequency of these AP |
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ELECTRICAL conductance si the PRIMARY method of singaling WITHIN the neurson--chemical singalsing does what
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COMMUNICATES BETWEEN NEURONS
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What is spatial summation
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the EPSP/IPSP occuring CLOSE to another have more of an effect on each other, than those distant
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What is temporal summation
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that EPSP/IPSP MUST be close toghether in time to have an effect on on another
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What are the 3 basic criteria for a substance to be considered a NT
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1. The substance must be LOCALIZED to the presynaptic element
2.the substance must be released following activation of presynatic tmerinal 3. direct application must have the SAME effects as stimulation of PRESYNAPTIC neuron |
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What are 2 clasess of NT
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1. Classical or small molecules
2. small peptide or NEUROPEPTIDES |
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Is Nitric oxide also a NT--but not in a class
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YES
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What is the size, syntheisis, vesilce and axonal transport and termination of action for CLASSICAL NT
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<10 carbons
syntheisis-enzymatic at synpase vescile is synaptic axonal transport is NON and terminal action action is reuptake |
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What is the size, synthesis, vesicle, and axonal transport and termination of action for NEUROPEPTIDE
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>10 carbons
cell body vesicle-dense core axonal transport--fast termination of action is enzyme degration |
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What are the 3 enzymes for synthesis of dopamine, and norephine
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1. tyrosine hydroxlase
2. DOPA decarboxylase 3. dopamine B-hydroxylase |
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What is enzyme for syntheis of acetylcholine
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choline acetlytransferase
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What are the 4 main amino acids NT
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GABA
Gluatmate Glycine Aspartate |
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What are the 5 major Bogenic amines NT's
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Dopamine
Epinehphinre Norephierine Serotonin (5-hydroxtramtamine) Histamine |
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What are precursor molcules of the 4 amino acid NT
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GABA-Glutame
Glumtamate-glutamate Asparate-Aspartate Glycine--Glycine |
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What are theprecursor molecules of the 5 main bogenic amines
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Dopamine-Tyrosine
Epinhprine-Tyrosine Norephiehrien=Tyrosine Serotonin--Tryptophan Histamine-Histidine |
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How is nitric oxide different from other NT
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it is not stored like other NT, but rather it diffuses from its site of synthesis to its stie of action
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What is NO most important target molecule
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guanylyl cyclase, which catalyzes the formatino of cGMP
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NT excluding NO interact with SPECFIC receptors what are 2 main kinds of NT receptors
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1. Ligand-gated ion channels
2. G-protein couple receptors |
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Ligand gated ion channels directly affection ion conducance, while G-protein couple receptors can
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indirectly affect ion conductance
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What is structure of Ligand-gated ion channels
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composed of 5 subunits that form a central pore through the membrane
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Can Ligand-gated ion channels be homoeric receptors (all same subunits) or hetermoeric receptros (
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can be either
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Upon relase of NT what happens
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stimulates receptor it opens, allowing flow of K+ Na+ Ca+ or Cl which elicts EPSP or IPSP
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What are excitory (EPSP ) NT
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Glutamate
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What is an inhibitory (IPSP) NT
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GABA
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How do ions flow through mylein
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by passive diffusion
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What are the 3 primary components of a G proteins
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1. the receptor
2. G binding protein 2. effector protein |
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What composes the recptor of the G protein
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single subunit that transveresese the membrane 7 times
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What composes the G protein
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3 subunits a, b y
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What is G protein in inactive state
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GDP is bound to the alpha subunit of teh G protein
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What happesn when a NT bind to the receptor
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GDP is displaced, and GTP binds to alpha subunit of G protein, and the G protien is release binds to teh effector protein
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What is referred to as slow synaptic transmission
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G protein coupled receptor
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The alpha subunit has GTPase activity which means
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energy is released when it interacts with the effector, which converts it back to GDP
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What does the alpha subunit determine
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effector protein specificity
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What does B and Y determine of G protein
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prevent the exchange of GTP for GDP when the G protein is INACTIVE
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Can G protein activate or inhibit its effector protein
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YES
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What are steps of NT
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1. Synthesis and storage
2. NT release 3. Termination of NT action 4.Regulation of NT |
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What happens in NT release
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vesicles aggregate in active zone (TIP of presynatic terminal)
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What is located in active zone
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high concentration of Ca+2 channels in the membrane
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What stimulates an influx of Ca+
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depolarization of the membrane in response to an ACTION POTENTIAL
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What does local increase of Ca+2 facilitates
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docking of vesciles to axonal membrane, and formation of FUSION PORE
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The fusion pore expands and what happens
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the contents of the vesicles are released into the synpatic cleft (exocyotis)
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The contents of both synaptic vesicles and dense-cored vesicles are released at the active zone but DENSE-cored vesicles can alos be released
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at other sites along axon OTHER than the active zone
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Is it critcal for released NT to be quckly removed in order to prevent diffusion and allow the postsynaptic cell receptive to addtional signals
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YES
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What are the 2 ways of Termation of NT action
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1. Reuptake back into teh cell though TRANSPORTERS
2. Ezymatic degration |
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Are both amino acid and biogenic amines NT removed by reuptake
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YES,
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Nueroptpetides also undergo enzymatic degration which occurs
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extracellularly
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What happens to NT that are reuptaked
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repackaged in synpatic vesicles or metabolized
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What supplies the energy for reuptake (energy dependent process)
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Na going down its concentration gradient from Na/K pump
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What is one example of regulation of NT in PRESYNAPIC TERMINAL
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autoreceptors by negative feedback
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NT can also be reulgated by modulation of postynaptic receptor by changes in what 2 componets
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changes in number of available receptors OR the responsiveness of the receptors
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What may occur when the recptor is expose to an agoinst for long periods of time
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downregulation (fewer receptors, enchanged receptor degration)
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Is regulation of NT--also include desensitation, does it occur over a shorter time frame than downreuglation
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YES
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Input to the nervous systme occurs via sensory receptors, what are 5 basic types of sensory receptors
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1. Mehanoreceptors
2. Thermo 3. Nociorectprs 4. Photorecptors (electromagnet) 5. Chemorecptors |
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What is the phsycial property dectected by mechanorecptors and sensation
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mechaical deforamtion--sensatino is skin tactile sensibilites
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What is the physical proterpty detected by thermorecptors and sensation
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temperature change, and cold, heat
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What is the physical proptery detected by nocieptors and sensation
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physical or chemical DAMAGE to tissue, and PAIN
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WHat is the physical protperty detected by photorecptors and sensation
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light energy, and VISION
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What is physical property dected by chemoreceptors and sensation
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change in CHEMICAL conc or composition and TASE AND SMELL
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Receptor potential are changes in membrane potential cause by a
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SENSORY stimulus
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The instensity of the sensory stimulus is determined by
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the more channels at OPEN
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Receptor poteintial are
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GRADED POTENTIALS
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Action potential are and caseud by
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DISCRETE--change in receptor or synpatic potentials
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Synaptic potential are
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change in membrane potential caused by release of NT
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The specificity of information is dictated by TWO factors
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1. the sensory recptors that is stimulated
2. the specific region of the brain that is stimulted |
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Is artificial stimulation of sensory rectpros that same as if it is natural
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YES
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What is the condition in which otherwise normal perop experience the blending of two ro more sense
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synesthesia
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What is Pacinian corpulse an example of and what happens
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receptor adaptation of mechanoreceptor, that senses pressure changes at teh ONSET, but it diminshes as long as the pressure is kept constatnt
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What is a Merkel cells
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SLOW adapting receptor respond at onset of presure stimulus, and remain as long as the stimulus does
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An axon from a single neuron will typically make hundreds to thousands of synaptic connections these area stmulates from a single axon is called
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a stimulatory field
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If the postynatpci resonse is excitorayr and there are enoguh connection for the EPSE to summate into a suprathreshold stimulates this area is known as
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DISCHANGE zone
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There there are not enough conncetions the incomign stimlus is substheshold, this area is known as
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facilitated zone
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What is required for a facilitated zone AP
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addition neuronal input to be EXCITED
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What is an inhibitory zone
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opposite of facilitated, b/c synatic connections inhibit
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What is divergence
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when a single fiber DIVERGES into 2 or more diretions
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What is convergence
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when mutiple inupts CONVERGE onto a SINGLE neuronce
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Circuits are made up are excitatory and inhibitory neurons that are reberatory or
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postive feeback sysyem
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